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LIB  R  ARY 

OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

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^ESTHETICS 


ITS  PROBLEMS  AND  LITERATURE 


BY 


FRED  N.  SCOTT,   PH.   D. 

Assistant- Prolessor  ot  Rhetoric  in  the  Universitu  ol  Wlicnigan 


'^im-s: 


ANN  AKBOK 

Zbc    f^Ian^   prc6» 


THE  REGISTER  PUBLISHING  COMPANY: 
ANN  ARBOR,  MICHIGAN. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


It  must  be  regarded   as  unfortunate  that  the 
study  of    works  of    art  and   the  study   of   the 
theory  of  art  have  somehow  come  to  be  looked 
upon  as  two  altogether  distinct  lines  of  research, 
for   each  of  these  two  important  branches  of 
knowledge,  when  rightly  considered,  is  seen  to 
be   essential   to  the   well-being  of    the   other. 
Esthetics,  unless  it  rests  on  a  concrete  basis  of 
actual  art  products,  unless,  even,  it  is  prepared 
to  reckon  with  the  latest  attenuation  of   '  real- 
ism '    and    the     most    recent     discoveries     in 
archaeology,  is  in  no  small  danger  of  becoming 
abstract  or  fantastic.     And  with  not  less  reason 
it  may   be   maintained  that   the   study   of  art, 
when  it  rejects  the  help  of  sound  constructive 
principles,  either  lapses  into  what  may  be  called 
archaeological     book-keeping,    or,    worse    still, 
passes  over  into  mere  sentimentality  and  windy 
suspiration.       The    breach    Ijetween    the     two 
has    been   widened,    perhaps,  by   the    conven- 


IV 


tional  interpretations  often  laid  upon  that  long- 
suffering  term,  art.  To  study  art,  in  the  popular 
rendering  of  the  phrase,  is  to  study  painting 
and  sculpture,  sometimes,  in  addition,  architect- 
ure. Too  often,  it  means  little  more  than  learn- 
ing the  names  and  dates  of  famous  sculptors  and 
painters,  together  with  a  few  facts  about  their 
works  and  formulae  for  distinguishing  the  school 
to  which  each  artist  is  assumed  to  belong.  This 
is,  of  course,  an  interesting,  and,  on  the  whole, 
a  profitable  branch  of  study,  one,  at  any  rate, 
that  will  never  lack  for  students  —  /xavddvsiv  o>> 

ixuvov    roic    ifiKoao(poic     rjucffrov    a/./.a    xai   roii^   aA.A.ot~, 

—but  it  is  probably  not  one-half  as  interesting, 
and  certainly  not  one  tithe  as  profitable  and 
stimulating  as  it  would  be  if  the  two  or  three 
kinds  of  art,  thus  singled  out  and  isolated,  were 
understood  in  their  true  kinship  to  each  other 
and  to  their  sister  arts.  And  if  this  be  so,  we 
may  go  still  further  and  confidently  assert  that 
such  study  has  infinitely  to  gain  in  real  value 
and  attractiveness  by  seeking  for  the  relation  of 
its  subject-matter  to  human  experience  in 
general. 

This  is  not,  perhaps,  the  common  view,  but  it 
is  one  that  the  present  writer  is  prepared  stoutly 
to  defend.     It  would  not  be  hard  to  show  that 


a'sthetic  theory  of  some  sort,  and  of  some  de- 
gree, is  required  in  all  art  study,  even,  for 
example,  in  the  identification  of  a  bron/o  toe 
from  Mt.  Ptous.  The  relations  of  art  to  nature, 
the  true  inwardness  of  realism  and  idealism, 
the  stages  of  growth  in  art  evolution — all  these 
weighty  problems  might  pirouette,  not  vainly, 
upon  that  single  toe!  As  a  matter  of  fact,  such 
questions  do  arise  at  every  turn  in  the  most 
tentative  or  the  most  technical  study  of  art,  to 
be  settled  foolishly  or  wisely,  according  to  the 
enlightenment  of  the  student.  Take  one  exam- 
ple: the  so-called  realistic  novel.  It  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  nine-tenths  of  all  that  has 
appeared  in  books  and  magazines  of  late,  bear- 
ing upon  this  particular  subject,  has  been 
simply  so  much  beating  of  the  air.  Most  of  the 
discussions  resemble  the  mock-serious  encoun- 
ters of  the  modern  French  duel,  in  which, 
notwithstanding  the  great  show  of  activity  sur 
If  terrain,  the  fine  display  of  bandages  and 
surgical  instruments,  the  much  longeing  and 
l)arrying  and  riposteing,  no  one,  except  by  pure 
accident,  ever  suffers  the  slightest  injury. 
When,  however,  -  -but  this  happens  only  at  long 
intervals — some  trained  thinker  has  deemed  it 
wortli   his  while  to  ply  the  rapier  for  a  moment. 


VI 

how  different  the  outcome!  *  Then  there  has 
been  bloodshed,  and  some  swaggering  fallacy 
has  been  left  lying  face  downward  on  the  sands. 
In  plain  words,  one  writer  has  understood 
what  he  is  talking  about,  the  other  has  not. 
One  has  had  for  his  weapon  of  analysis  a  con- 
sistent aesthetic  theory,  the  other  only  a  few 
stock  literary  conventions. 

Surely,  then,  on  this  one  point,  a  clear  knowl- 
edge of  aesthetics  does  not  come  amiss.  And, 
in  general,  if  a  little  knowledge  of  aesthetics  is 
a  dangerous  thing,  does  not  the  way  of  salvation 
lie  in  the  direction  of  more  aesthetics,  not  of 
less?  If  it  is  a  good  thing,  for  example,  when 
one  is  studying  Browning,  to  know  a  little 
about  lyric  poetry,  is  it  not  a  better  thing  to 
know  the  relations  of  lyric  to  other  types  of 
literary  expression?  And  if  so,  may  it  not  be 
a  further  advantage  to  be  able  to  carry  the  whole 
discussion  back  to  the  principles  of  artistic 
expression  in  general? 

If  it  be  true,  then,  that  the  connection  between 
art  and  the  theory  of  art  is  a  thing  to  be  de- 
sired, and  if,  as  is  probably  the  case,  the  study 

*  It  would  be  perilous  to  cite  examples  here,  but  perhaps 
the  article  of  Prof.  T.  H.  Green,  An  Estimate  of  the  Value 
and  Influence  of  Works  of  Fiction  in  Modern  Times  (Works, 
Vol.  3),  may  he  referred  to  without  offense. 


VII 

of  particular  works  of  art  is  iu  no  danger  of 
neglect,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  call  at- 
tention more  especially  to  the  theoretical  side 
of  art-study,  pointing  out  some  of  the  more 
important  problems  of  aesthetics,  and  indicating 
the  sources  in  which  the  solution  of  them  may 
be  found. 


A 


J?  THB 

USI7BRSIT7] 


PROBLEMS  IN  AESTHETICS. 


The  following  list  of  problems  is  intended  to 
be  suggestive  merely.  Each  might  be  divided 
and  subdivided  ad  indefmihim. 

i.     Phijsiolotjical. 

The  general  problem  of  physiological  aesthet- 
ics may  be  stated  in  this  way:  What  is  the 
origin,  nature,  and  physical  explanation  of  the 
aesthetic  thrill?  As  the  inquiry  usually  pro- 
ceeds upon  the  assumption  that  «?sthetic  feeling 
is  a  species  of  pleasurable  feeling,  the  line  of 
research  is  in  the  direction  of  differentiating 
this  kind  of  sensuous  pleasure  from  sensuous 
pleasure  in  general.  Thus  the  following  series 
of  subsidiary  problems  arises: — 

(1.)  What  changes  in  the  nervous  system, 
resulting  from  the  application  of  stimuli,  pro- 
duce the  sensation  of  pleasure? 

(2.)  (a)  What  classes  of  objects  supply 
these  stimuli?  (b)  What  are  the  attributes  of 
these  objects?  (c)  Do  dissimilar  qualities  fur- 
nish the  same  result,  or  is  there  some  one  quali- 


ty,  existing  in  different  forms,  in  all  objects  that 
occasion  pleasure? 

( 3. )  Is  the  relation  between  the  stimulus  and 
the  pleasurable  feeling  necessary  and  invari- 
able, or  accidental  and  mutable? 

(4.)  How  are  pleasurable  feelings  related  to 
the  vital  functions? 

(5.)  (a)  What  quality  in  the  stimulus,  or 
(b)  what  modification  of  the  neural  process, 
occasions  the  aesthetic  quality  of  the  feeling? 

(6.)  What  are  the  pre-eminently  sesthetic 
senses? 

Assuming  that  hearing  and  seeing  are  the 
only,  or  the  pre-eminently,  aesthetic  senses,  the 
physiologist  may  inquire: — 

( 7. )  What  in  the  nervous  structure  and  func- 
tion of  the  ear  corresponds  to  the  relations  of 
tones  constituting  the  musical  scale?  to  the  rela- 
tions of  tones  constituting  harmony  or  discord? 

(8.)  What  are  the  exact  mathematical  rela- 
tions of  such  tones? 

(9.)  What  are  the  neural  equivalents  of 
rhythm  and  melody? 

(10.)  What  colors  and  combinations  of 
colors  are  pleasing  to  the  eye? 

( 11. )  What  forms  and  proportions  of  objects 
are  pleasing? 


3 

(12.)  What  movements  of  the  eye  and  modi- 
fications of  its  neural  processes  correspond  to 
pleasing  forms  and  colors  of  objects? 

ii.     Psychological. 

Esthetics  as  psychology  is  most  obviously 
concerned  with  the  nature  of  {esthetic  feeling, 
although  it  is  bound  to  take  into  account  all  facts 
of  consciousness  involved  in  the  production  of 
such  feeling.  Calling,  for  convenience,  all 
objects  that  can  arouse  aesthetic  feeling  cnsthetic 
objects,  the  psychologist  may  inquire: — 

(1.)  Does  the  perception  of  the  j«sthetic 
object  differ  from  that  of  other  objects?  And 
if  so,  how? 

This  problem  resolves  itself  into  two  subordi- 
nate problems: — 

(a)  What  sensations  do  the  peculiar  physi- 
cal marks  of  the  {esthetic  object,  as  e.  g.,  color, 
symmetry,  etc.,  produce? 

(b)  How  is  this  raw  material  of  sensation 
worked  up  into  consciousness  through  percep- 
tion? 

(2.)  What  is  the  nature  and  function  of 
imagination  in  so  far  as  it  has  to  do  with  the 
{esthetic  object? 


4 

(3.)  Characteristics  of  the  different  kinds 
of  aBsthetic  imagination? 

(4.)  Are  all  aesthetic  objects  (e.  g.,  natural 
objects)  products  of    the  aesthetic  imagination? 

( 5. )  Can  the  aesthetic  imagination  do  anything 
more  than  combine  what  has  been  given  it  in 
experience? 

(6.)  Why  does  the  mind  take  an  interest  in 
the  aesthetic  object? 

(7.)  Characteristics  of  aesthetic  feeling? 
How  related  to  sensation? 

(8.)     Kinds  of  aesthetic  feeling? 

(9.)  Kelations  between  aesthetic  feeling  and 
other  kinds  of  feeling? 

(10.)     Esthetic  function  of  the  will? 

iii.     Speculaiive. 

The  problem  of  aesthetics  as  philosophy  may 
be  stated,  in  a  general  way,  to  be  the  relation  of 
the  subject-matter  (whatever  that  may  be  deter- 
mined to  be)  to  human  experience.  As  sug- 
gested by  the  parenthesis,  the  nature  of  the 
subject-matter  is  itself  a  part  of  the  problem. 
Retaining  the  convenient  term  aesthetic  object, 
we  may  inquire: — 

(1. )  What  is  it  about  things  that  makes  them 
aesthetic  objects? 


5 

This  not  very  sensible  question  always  elicits 
the  equally  wise  answer,  Beauiy.  If  it  is  nec- 
essary to  posit  some  particular  thing  as  the 
essence  of  the  aesthetic  object,  it  would  perhaps 
be  better  to  substitute  for  the  ambiguous  terra 
beauty  the  term  a'sthcfic  value,  which  has  the 
advantage,  at  least,  of  suggesting  its  (^uestion- 
begging  character. 

( 2. )  Is  aesthetic  value  subjective,  or  objective, 
or  both? 

(3.)  Kinds  of  {esthetic  value,  and  relation  of 
one  kind  to  another? 

As  examples  of  the  different  kinds  may  be 
mentioned,  the  Beautiful,  the  Sublime,  the  Lu- 
dicrous, the  Pathetic,  the  Tragic,  the  Grotesque, 
etc. 

(4.)     Relation  of  the  work  of  art  to  nature? 

This  question  may  take  on  a  great  diversity 
of  forms,  as,  for  example: — 

(a)  Is  art  an  imitation  of  nature,  and  if  so, 
is  that  all  that  art  is? 

(b)  In  what  respect  does  the  aesthetic  value 
of  art  differ  from  that  of  nature? 

(c)  Is  there  a  higher  and  a  lower  aesthotic 
value,  and  if  so,  which  is  higher,  that  of  nature 
or  that  of  art? 


(d)  Does  nature,  when  it  takes  on  aesthetic 
value,  become  art? 

(5.)     Character  of  the  work  of  art? 

In  dealing  with  the  work  of  art,  we  may 
regard  it  as  complete  in  itself  and  inquire 
(a)  What  is  its  essential  principle;  or,  taking 
into  account  the  conditions  of  its  production, 
may  ask  (b)  Why  works  of  art  should  be 
produced  at  all,  or,  (c)'  What  were  the  aims  and 
motives  of  the  producer  of  a  particular  work; 
or,  (d)  By  what  processes  and  in  obedience  to 
what  laws  he  gave  embodiment  to  his  idea;  or, 
(e)  In  what  material  he  embodied  it;  or,  (f) 
What  are  the  laAvs  of  the  development  of  art  in 
general?  The  answer  to  the  first  question  will 
bring  before  us  the  theory  of  art;  to  the  second, 
the  genesis  of  art,  or  the  art-impulse;  to  the 
third,  the  relations  of  art  and  the  artist;  to  the 
fourth,  the  technique  of  art;  to  the  fifth,  the 
classification  of  the  arts;  and  to  the  sixth,  the 
evolution  of  art  as  a  historical  growth. 

Finally,  we  may  consider  works  of  art  as  po- 
tent factors  in  social  and  moral  development, 
demand  to  know  whether  their  influence  is 
moral  or  immoral,  and  inquire  what  ends  of 
education  or  enlightenment,  if  any,  are  sub- 
served by  their  existence. 


bNIVBHSITY] 

LITERATURE  OF  AESTHETICS  * 


t 


There  are  two  classes  of  students  whose  needs 
must  be  taken  into  account:  first,  those  who 
wish  to  get  merely  general  notions  from  trust- 
worthy authorities  without  being  put  to  the  ex- 
pense of  time  and  trouble  necessary  to  form  an 
independent  judgment;  second,  those  who  wish 
to  go  to  the  bottom  of  the  matter.  The  two 
classes  will  of  necessity  pursue  their  studies  in 
a  somewhat  different  order  and  according  to 
different  methods. 

I. 

It  will  be  of  advantage  for  the  student  to 
learn,  at  the  outset,  the  limits  of  the  subject  he 
is  to  study,  the  most  important  problems  that 
are  likely  to  arise,  and  the  names,  and  at  least  a 
primitive  notion  of  the  views,  of  the  recognized 
authorities.     Tliese  facts  may  be  gleaned  from 

•For  a  general  bIblloKraphy  of  the  subject,  the  student  may 
be  referred  to  A  Guide  to  the  Literature  of  .^Isthotlcs.  by  C.  M. 
Gayley  and  F.  N.  t^cott  (Berkeley:  18110.  Univ.  of  Cal.  Library 
Bulletins,  No.  U).  In  wliat  follows,  the  numbers  In  parentheses 
refer  to  pages  of  the  'Guide.'    When  the  work  Is  one  not  men- 


8 

the  articles  on  '  Art,'  '  Fine  Art,'  and  '  Esthetics/ 
in  the  9th  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica.  Some  acquaintance  with  the  psychology 
of  the  subject  may  next  be  sought  in  Dewey's 
Psychology  (42),  chaps.  7  and  9,  Sully's  Out- 
lines (43),  p.  316-329,  531-552,  and  the  article 
Art  and  Psychology,  in  Mind,  1:479.  The 
opening  chapter  of  Everett's  Poetry,  Comedy, 
and  Duty  (17)  is  an  easy  and  delightful  intro- 
duction to  the  psychology  of  the  imagination. 
For  the  philosophical  treatment  of  the  subject 
the  chapters  in  Everett's  Science  of  Thought 
( 17 )  on  Beauty  and  ^Esthetics  are  well  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  beginners,  while  the  lecture  of 
Prof.  G.  S.  Morris  in  Jl.  Spec.  Philos.  10: 1, 
and  Ker's  Essay  on  Art,  in  Seth  and  Haldane's 
Essays  (24),  may  be  recommended  as  at  once 
lucid  and  profound.  Begg's  Development  of 
Taste  (16)  is  excellent  in  spirit  and,  generally, 
in  method.  Kedney's  Exposition  of  Hegel  (27), 
in  spite  of  numerous  defects,  is  about  the  best 
handbook  of  aesthetics  now  in  the  market.  Bos- 
anquet's  translation   of    Hegel's    Introduction 

tioned  in  the  'Guide.'  the  bibliographical  data  are  given  with 
sufficient  fulness  to  identify  it.  A  careful  bibliography  of 
about  one  hundred  and  forty  titles,  arranged  according  to  date^ 
of  publication,  will  be  found  in  Notes  and  Queries.  6th.  Ser.. 
VIII.  183.  243.  302.  382. 


9 
(26)  should  bo  in  the  hands  of  every  student. 
The  writings  that  fill   an  important  place  in 
the  history  of  aesthetics  can  be  properly  under- 
stood, in  most  cases,  only  with  reference  to  the 
philosophical  systems  of  which  they  form  com- 
ponent  parts.     A  few,  however,  are  of  a  semi- 
popular  character.     In  Goethe's  Conversations 
( 25  )almost  all  the  main  questions  of  art-theory  are 
touched  upon  and  rendered  luminous.  Schiller's 
.Esthetic  Letters  (31 )  are  delightful  reading,  and 
thus  easily  carry  the  student  along  into  philosoph- 
ic depths  that  he  would  not  otherwise  venture  to 
explore.     The  same  is  true  of  the  aesthetic  doc- 
trines of    Schopenhauer  (32),  one  of  the  most 
readable  and  entertaining  of  modern  writers  on 
lesthetics,  whose  value,  however,  lies  rather  in 
his  remarks  by  the  way  than  in  his  main  con- 
clusions.    Cousin's   lectures   on   the   True,  the 
Beautiful,  and  the  Good  (3G  ),  which  at  one  time 
enjoyed   some   popularity   as   a  text   book,  are 
written  in  popular  form,  but  cannot  be  recom- 
mended as  an  adequate  presentation  of  {esthetic 
theory.     Ruskin  (20)  should  be  read  by  every- 
one, but  rather  for  his  descrij)tions  of  art  and 
nature  than  for  his  philosophy.     Though  a  pow- 
erful stimulus  to  the  sense  for  beauty,  he  is  not 
the  best  propaedeutic  in  the  world  to  the  science 


lO 

of  art.  As  a  corrective,  may  be  read  Miss 
Paget' s  article  on  Ruskinism,  in  Belcaro  (32), 
which,  in  seeking  to  rectify  Ruskin's  moral  bias, 
goes  almost  too  far  in  the  opposite  direction. 
A  careful  criticism  of  the  third  volume  of  Mod- 
ern Painters  will  befoand  in  an  article  by  Prof. 
Everett  in  No.  Am.  84:  379. 

Though  the  number  of  those  who  write  on 
aesthetics  in  a  popular  way  is  very  great,  only  a 
few  can  be  referred  to  here.  Miss  Paget  (Ver- 
non Lee)  writes  with  a  capricious  self-assurance 
that  makes  her  occasional  essays  charming  lit- 
erature. They  are  interesting,  however,  rather 
as  recording  the  shifting  moods  of  a  sensitive 
personality  in  the  presence  of  art,  than  as  con- 
stituting careful  and  connected  thinking  about 
art.  Belcaro,  a  collection  of  articles  originally 
printed  in  the  magazines,  is  full  of  fresh  and 
striking  observations  upon  sculpture,  music,and 
poetry.  Juvenilia  (Lond:  1887)  is  of  the  same 
character.  Miss  Paget's  most  ambitious  flight 
•is  an  article  on  Comparative  ^Esthetics,  in  Con- 
temp.  38:300,  a  not  altogether  successful  at- 
tempt to  weld  Hegel  and  Taine.  The  essay  on 
the  Value  of  the  Ideal,  in  Baldwin  (Lond:1886), 
defines  pretty  clearly  her  philosophical  position, 
in  so  far  as  she  can  be  said  to  have  one.     Walter 


II 


Pater's  delicacy  of  iutuition  leads  him  to  safe 
conclusions  even  where  his  writings  seem  mere 
transcripts  of  impression.     The  introduction  and 
conclusion  of  his  Studies  in  the  History  of  the  Re- 
naissance (83),  and  the  essay  on  Wincklemann,  in 
the  same  volume,  are  well  worth  reading.     The 
fundamental  principle  of   his  aesthetic   is  per- 
haps most  clearly  set  for  th  in  his  essay  on  Style, 
in   Appreciations    (Lond:    1889).     The   critical 
writings  of  J.  A.  Symouds  are  underlaid  by  a 
consistent  and  easily  comprehensible  theory  of 
art  which  the  author  has  once  or  twice  set  forth 
with  some  explicitnees;  for  example,  in  the  Re- 
naissance in  Italy,  the  Catholic  Reaction,  Pt.  2, 
p.  396-402  (113),  and    Essays,  Speculative   and 
Suggestive  (Lond:  1890).    Upon  the  last-named 
work,  see  the  criticism  in  Nation  51:173.     The 
younger  Symonds  should  not  be  confused  with 
J.  A.  Symouds,  M.  D.,  author  of  Principles  of 
Beauty  (Lond:  1857).     Gurney's magazine  arti- 
cles have  been  collected  in  the  Power  of  Sound 
(70)  and  Tertium  Quid  (2v.  Lond:  1887).     The 
third  chapter  of  the  Power  of  Sound   is  an  ex- 
position of   the  author's    a3sthetic8.      Sully  is 
hardly  to  be  mentioned  in  the  category  of  the 
merely  popular,  though  the  clearness  and  sim- 
plicity   of    his    treatment    of   difficult  matters 


"^7e:.       "4 


12 


adapt  his  writings  to  the  needs  of  the  beginner. 
His  Sensation  and  Intuition  (22)  presents  the 
scientific  aspect  of  many  important  questions. 
Prof.  Seeley's  article  on  Elementary  Principles 
in  Art,Macm  16:  1,  is  a  good  introduction  to  th& 
subject. 

Inquiries  are  often  made  by  students  for 
some  popular  compend  which  shall  embrace 
within  its  covers  all  the  information  about  art 
that  they  need  to  acquire.  It  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  say  that  all  hopes  of  this  character 
are  indulged  in  vain;  no  such  book  exists. 
Nevertheless,  as  popular  compends  have  their 
value,  some  of  the  most  notable  will  be  briefly 
indicated.  Day's  Science  of  ^Esthetics  (New 
Haven:  1872)  is  designed  for  a  text-book,  and 
hence  deals  mainly  in  formal  definitions  and 
classifications.  Samson's  Elements  of  Art 
Criticism  (52),  which  aims  at  great  comprehen- 
siveness, does  little  more  than  bring  into 
juxtaposition  unrelated  details.  Harris's  Theory 
of  the  Arts  (18)  is  largely  composed  of  com- 
monplaces grouped  about  a  theory  of  no  great 
worth  or  co-ordinating  power.  McDermot's 
Critical  Dissertation  (19)  is  clear  enough,  but 
antiquated.  The  popularity  enjoyed  by  Bas- 
com's  Esthetics  (16)  has  been  deserved  by  the 


13 


lucidity  and  roadablonoss  of  the  text.  The 
prominence  givou  to  the  author's  ethical  and 
theological  views  may  seem  to  some  a  trifle 
obtrusive.  Van  Dyke's  Principles  of  Art  (22) 
covers  much  ground,  but  is  restricted  by  its 
small  compass  to  a  brief  treatment  of  the  sepa- 
rate toi)ics.  A  useful  primer  of  art  is  Lucy 
Crane's  Lectures  on  Art  and  the  Formation  of 
Taste  (22 )  ailopted  as  a  text-book  by  the  mana- 
gers of  the  Chautauqua  Reading  Circle. 

Gauckler's  Le  Beau  (44)  is  perhaps  the  sim- 
plest and  handiest  of  the  French  compends. 
Veron  aims  to  cover  the  whole  field  of  specula- 
tion, but  is  exceedingly  unsystematic.  A  good 
I  translation  (38)  is  available. 

In  the  German  language,  Lemcke'sPopuliire 
Aesthetik  (29)  is  simple  in  style,  and  although 
condemned  by  Schasler  as  trivial  and  conven- 
tional, about  the  best  thing  of  the  kin<l  to  be 
obtained.  Other  German  compends  are  Stock- 
el's  Allg.  Lehrlmch  d.  Ae.sthetik  (3.  aufl. 
Meinz:  1889)  and  PrOlss's  Katechismus  d.  ^s- 
thetik  (2  aufl.  Leipz.:  1889). 

XL 

For  the  second  class  of  students,  those  who 
desire  to   make  themselves  thoroughly  at  home 


\, 


in  the  subject,  the  historical  method  is  here,  as 
in  most  branches,  by  far  the  best.  A  general 
notion  of  the  scope  of  the  science  may  be  secured 
in  the  way  suggested  above,  after  which  Greek 
aBsthetics  should  be  resolutely  attacked.  The 
theories  of  Socrates  may  be  gathered  from 
Xenophon's  Memorabilia  and  Banquet.  Of 
Plato's  dialogues,  the  Ion,  Phaedo,  Symposium, 
Gorgias,  and  Philebus  should  be  read  entire, 
and  at  least  books  2,  3,  7-10  of  the  Republic. 
Jowett's  translation  (13)  is,  of  course,unrivalled, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  Republic,  where  it 
shares  honors  with  that  of  Davies  and  Vaughan 
(14).  Aristotle's  Poetics  should  be  studied,  if 
possible,  in  the  original.  Of  the  translations, 
/Wharton's(ll)  is  the  only  one  that  can  be  recom- 
mended. The  passages  of  the  Rhetoric,  Meta- 
physics, and  Psychology  (11)  that  throw  light 
on  Aristotle's  theory  of  art,  should  not  escape 
attention.  The  writings  of  Plotinus  (14)  and 
Longinus  (13)  are  important  for  the  history  of 
aesthetics,  but  may  be  left  for  later  investiga- 
tion. 

In  taking  up  the  German  authorities,  while 
it  is  desirable  that  some  acquaintance  should  first 
be  formed  with  the  theories  and  results  of 
Baumgarten  (Aesthetica,  Frankfurt  a.  d.  Oder: 


15 

1750-58,  Winckleraanu  (49).  Lessing  (29.  30): 
and  Goetho  (25,  26),  the  reading  of  these 
authors  may,  if  time  presses,  be  deferred  until 
the  more  systematic  treatises  have  been  dealt 
with.  Beginning  with  Kant,  the  principles  of 
the  Kritik  der  Aesthetischen  Urtheilskraft 
should  be  thoroughly  mastered,  either  by  a  read- 
ing of  the  text,  or  by  a  careful  study  of  Caird's 
1  Critical  Philosophy  of  Kant  (28)  v.  2,  p.  420- 
476.  Unfortunately,  no  English  translation  of 
the  Critique  of  Judgment  is  in  existence, 
though  passages  have  been  translated  by  Wat- 
son (28).  Barni's  free  rendering  (2v.  Paris: 
1846)  is  not  generally  available.  The  obscurity 
of  the  original  has  been  much  over-rated,  in 
particular  by  Prof.  Eaton  in  New  Eng.  49:246. 
Schiller  may  be  read  in  Weiss's  translation 
(31).  Especial  attention  should  be  directed  to 
Schiller's  indebtedness  to  Kant  and  to  his  ad- 
vance upon  the  latter.  Schelling's  Philosophic 
der  Kunst  (31)  must  be  read  in  the  original  if 
read  at  all.  It  is  of  considerable  importance  in 
the  historical  sequence.  With  Hegel's  Vor- 
lesungen  liber  die  Aesthstik  the  student  should 
make  himself  thoroughly  at  home.  Bosanquot's 
admirable  translation  (26)  of  the  Einleituug 
and  Eiutheilung  furnishes  the  key  to  the  whole 


i6 

work.  Hastie  (27)  has  translated  p.  1-30  of  the 
Einleitung  and  p.  105-114  of  the  Eintheilung 
(Bosanquet,  p.  vi.,  wrongly  assumes  p.  34-36  of 
Hastie's  work  to  be  an  analysis),  but  his  trans- 
lation, while  readable  and  fairly  representative 
of  Hegel's  thought,  falls  far  below  Bosanquet's 
in  point  of  critical  value.  The  motto  which 
Hastie  has  placed  opposite  his  title-page  is  a 
curious  example  of  the  danger  of  fragmentary 
quotation.*  Kedney's  work  (27)has  value  as  be- 
ing the  only  detailed  exposition  in  English  of  the 
whole  Aesthetik.  Unhappily,  the  author  has  fol- 
lowed the  plan  of  substituting  his  own  theories  for 
those  of  Hegel  at  every  point  wherein  he  differs 
with  the  latter,  and  the  reader,  though  warned 
of  the  interpolated  matter  by  the  insertion  of 
brackets,  cannot  be  sure  whether  the  impres- 
sions that  he  carries  away  from  the  work  are 
those  of  the  expositor  or  the  expounded.  The 
author's  criticism,  p.  16,  of  Hegel's  position 
with  regard  to  the  beauty  of  nature  is  clearly 
based  on  a  misreading  of  the  Aesthetik.  (See 
the  Einleitung,  p.  57-58).  The  same  is  proba- 
bly true  of  the  bracketed  paragraph  on  p.  187- 

*i.  e.,.a  view  of  art  which  Hegel  ascribes  to  common  opin- 
ion, is  set  down  as  Hegel's  own  view.  The  same  error  is  com- 
mitted by  the  author  (G.  H.  Lewes?)  of  the  article  in  Brit,  and 
For.  Rev.  13:  1  (p.  22). 


17 

188.     Much  translation,  incliuliiig  B^nard's  ex- 
position, will  be  found  iu  the  Jl.  Spec.  Philos. 
(27 ).     The  reading  of  the  entire  Aesthetik  is 
no   very    formidable    task    for    those  who    are 
familiar    with  the    Hegelian   terminology,  and 
that  it  will   amply  repay  the  labor,  is  a  point 
that  need  not  be  arguetl.     Schopenhauer  (32) 
and   Lotze    (30)    may  be  read   in    translation. 
Other  German  writers  who  may  be  consulted  at 
discretion,  are  Huge  (Neue  Vorschule  d.  Aosth. 
Halle:  1837),Schleiermacher  ( Vorles. ub.  Aesth. 
Berlin:  1842),  Solger  (32),  Txichter  (31),Weisse 
(  System  d.  Aesth.  als  "Weissensch.  v.  d.  Idee  d. 
SchOnen,    Leipz.:   1830),  Vischer     (32)    whose 
monster  treatise  is  a  complete  encyclopaedia  of 
aesthetic  theory,    Krause    (Yorlesuugen    ttber 
Aesth.  (1828-29,  and  Abriss  d.  Aesthet.  1837), 
Zimmermann  (  33  ),  Carriere  (25  ),  Schasler  (31), 
Koestlin  (  29  i,  Von  Kirchmaun  (Aesth.  auf  real- 
istischer     (Irundl.,     Berlin:     18G9),     Horwicz 
(Grundl.  e.  Systems  d.  Aesthetik,  Leipz:  1860), 
and  Siebeck  (32).  Trahudortf    (Aesthetik,   2v. 
Berlin:  1830)  has  been  revived  by  von  Hart- 
mann  (Philos.  Monatshefte  22:  o9 ),  but  hardly 
seems  entitled  to  the  space  allotted  him  by  the 
latter  in  his  Jiisthotik  (1.  129-156).     Herbart's 
wide-reaching  influence  in  psychology  makes  it 


iS 

desirable  to  know  something  of  his  aesthetics,  in 
which  he  includes  his  ethical  theory.  Zeising's 
name  (33)  is  so  identified  with  the  'golden  sec- 
tion '  that  his  other  theories  are  generally  neg- 
lected. Though  his  standpoint  is  Hegelian,  his 
aesthetic  is  influenced  by  Herbart.  The  psycho- 
physicist,  Fechner,  who  has  verified  by  elaborate 
experiment  the  discovery  of  Zeising,  represents 
a  revolt  against  the  method  of  speculative 
aesthetics.  The  investigations  of  Helmholtz 
with  reference  to  the  physiology  of  sound  (71) 
and  of  light  (Optique  Physiologique,  Paris: 
1867)  are  indispensible  to  the  specialist. 
Wherever  he  has  expanded  his  theories  in  sys- 
tematic form,  Helmholtz  has  followed  the  lines 
laid  down  by  Kant  in  his  Critique  of  Judgment. 
The  most  formidable,  and  at  the  same  time  one 
of  the  ablest,  of  late  contributions  to  aesthetics 
is  the  systematic  treatise  of  Von  Hartmann 
(26).  It  is  defective  in  that  it  gives  little  or  no 
space  to  the  historical  aspect  of  art. 

Among  the  French  writers,  P.  Andre  (Traits 
sur  le  beau,  in  Oeuvres  Philos.,  Paris:  1843), 
Buffier  ( Sur  la  Nature  du  Gout,  in  Cours  g6n- 
6ral  et  particulier  des  Sciences,  Paris:  1732), 
Batteux  (108),  and  Diderot  (36),  in  the  last 
century,  and  Cousin  (36),  Jouffroy  (37)  Pictet 


(Du  Beau  dans  la  Nature,  Paris:  185ft),  L6v6que 
(37),    Chaignet    (Principes   de   la    Science   du 
Beau,    Paris:  1860),   Prudhommc    (37),   Taine 
(38),  and  Veron   (38),  in  the  present  century, 
have  the  strongest  claim  to  attention.     Of  the 
whole  number  the  treatise  of  Lev6que  is  the 
most  systematic.    Chai^aiet  is  most  interested  in 
the  psychology  of  esthetics.     The  brilliancy  of 
Taine's  stvle  and  the  glib  simplicity  of  his  sys-    y 
tern  have  made  his  theories  better  known  mthis 
country  than  those  of  any  other  foreign  writer 
His    cavacUre   essentid   should    be  compared 
with  Herder's  Bedeidsame,  Hirt's  Charakteris- 
iische,  and  Goethe's  Bedeidendv.^     (See  Schas- 
ler's  Gesch.  d.  ^sth.  v.  1.  p.  498-499,  Hegel  s 
.i:sth.  I.  23-20,  Bosauquet's  trans.,  p.  31-37). 

Of  late  writers  who  have  discussed  special 
topics  with  ability,  should  be  mentioned  B^nard, 
Milsand,  Guyau,  Seailles,  Lechalas,  Souriau, 
Charles  Henry,  Arr6at,  Paulhan,  and  Sorel. 
AH     have   boon    freciueut   contributors   to    the 

.  A  curious  anti.ap.ti....  ..f  Taine's  formula  ..f  the  race,  the 

,„oment.  and  the  eaviroiunent  occurs  In  lleRels  .l-.sth..  L  p.  20. 
Sodann  phort  J.dos  KunstwerU  seln.-r  /.elt,  somen.  VolWe. 
seiner  uU.bun«  an.  BrnnetK-n.  who  adds  t^t^e  three  cond. 
tlons  specltted  by  Taine  the  elen.ent  of  .nd.vlduality  (L  E^  o  u 
Z  dos  Genres  dans  nUsU.lre  do  la  Litt.,  I.  p.  •^..  se,.ns  also 
.  ,..v..  h..en  anticipated  by   He.el.  .«sth..  I.  p.  4.5:     IH-nn  das 


20 

Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes  or  the  Rev.  Philosophique. 
B^nard  represents  the  Hegelian  influence. 
Henry  inclines  to  the  mathematical  interpre- 
tation of  sesthetic  facts.  Sorel  is  a  follower 
of  Fechner.  See  the  interesting  article  by 
the  latter  in  Rev.  Philos.  29:56,  30:22,  on 
Psycho-physical  Contributions  to  the  Study  of 
.Esthetics. 

English  aesthetics,  because  the  science  has  not 
been  recognized  as  a  department  of  philosophy, 
is  for  the  most  part  a  matter  of  shreds  and 
patches.  The  attitude  of  the  British  mind,  up 
to  a  very  late  period,  is  perhaps  best  indicated 
by  the  brief  note  in  the  eighth  edition  of  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica : — 

"  ^Esthetics. — A  term  ....  employed  by  the 
followers  of  the  German  metaphysicians  to  des- 
ignate philosophical  investigations  into  the 
theory  of  the  Beautiful  or  Philosophy  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  which  they  are  disposed  to  regard  as 
a  distinct  science.  ....  J^^sthetic  speculations  do 
not  appear  to  have  contributed  anything  to  the 

Kunstwerk,  um  seiner  zusleioh  materielleii  unci  indiv^iduollen 
Natur  willeu,  seht  wesentlich  aus  besonderen  Bodingungen  der 
manichfachsten  Art,  wozu  vorziiglich  Zeit  und  Ort  der  Enste- 
hung,  daun  die  bestiramte  Individualitat  des  Kiinstlers  und 
hauptsaclilich  die  teohnischo  Ausbilduiig  der  Kunst  gehoren. 
hervor 


21 


improvement  of  the  fine  art*,  or  to  our  real 
knowledge  of  mental  phenomena." 

Bacon  (15),  Shaftesbury  (21),  Hutcheson 
(18),  Reid  (20),  Hume  (18),  Stewart  (22),  Lord 
Kames  (19),  Burke  (16),  Alison  (15),  Jeffrey 
( 19),  and  Sir  Wra.  Hamilton  (17)  are  the  most 
important  of  the  earlier  writers.  Of  the  modem 
contributions,  Spencer's  chapter  on  the  -i^sthetic 
Emotions  in  his  Psychology  (22),  an  elabora- 
tion of  Schiller's  Spielirieb,  has  had  most  influ- 
ence on  scientific  thought,  Ruskins  Modern 
Painters  most  influence  upon  the  popular  con- 
sciousness. Grant  Allen,  in  his  Physiological 
^Esthetics  (15),  has  followed  up  the  line  of  re- 
search outlined  by  Spencer's  theory,  and  added 
much  illustrative  material. 

It  may  be  useful  to  those  pursuing  this  line 
of  historical  study  to  mention  some  of  the  most 
important  critical  helps.  Of  the  general  histor- 
ies of  sesthetics,  Schasler's  Kritische  Geschichte 
(10)  should  be  noted  first  as  at  once  the  clear- 
est and  most  comprehensive.  Zimmermann's 
Geschichte  (10)  is  valuable,  but  not  so  com- 
plete. Sully's  article  in  the  9th  edition  of  the 
Encyclopsedia  Britannica,  though  excellent  for 
reference,  does  not  pretend  to  be  more  than  a 
sketch.     Sully's   evolutionist   inclinations   lead 


22 

him  to  minimize  the  results  of  German  specula- 
tion. Both  Ueberweg's  and  Erdmann's  Histor- 
ies of  Philosophy  give  generous  space  to  aesthet- 
ics. A  short  summary  of  aesthetic  theories  is 
given  in  Bain's  Mental  Science  ( 15 )  and  a  fuller 
account  in  L^veque's  Science  du  Beau  (37). 
Hermann's  Die  Aesthetik  in  ihrer  Geschichte 
und  als  wissenschaftliches  System  (Leipz,:  1875) 
has  not  been  consulted.  A  general  history  of 
aesthetics  is  now  in  preparation  by  Mr.  Bernard 
Bosanquet  for  Muirhead's  Library  of  Philos- 
ophy. 

Of  authorities  on  Greek  aesthetics,  Ed.  Mtil- 
ler's  Geschichte  der  Theorie  der  Kunst  bei  den 
Alten  (Breslau:  1834)  has  as  yet  no  "rival.  Eg- 
ger's  Essai  sur  I'histoire  de  la  Critique  chez  les 
Grecs  (9)  is  admirably  clear,  but  is  concerned 
rather  more  with  rhetoric  than  with  aesthetics 
proper.  The  first  volume  of  Chaignet's  Histoire 
de  la  Psychologie  des  Grecs  (9)  systematizes  the 
implied  psychology  of  Socrates  and  Plato.  For 
his  treatment  of  Aristotle,  see  his  Essai  sur  la 
Psychologie  d'Aristote  (Paris:  1884).  Zeller's 
summaries  of  Plato  (14)  and  Aristotle  (11)  are 
searching,  but  have  a  rigidity  peculiar  to  his 
mode  of  treatment — everything  seems  to  shrink 
a  little  under  Zeller's   touch.     The   article  by 


23 

Nettleship  in  Abbot's  Hellenica  (13),  though 
dealing  solely  with  the  Republic,  contains  a 
fairly  adequate  exposition  of  Plato's  theory  of 
art.  Jowett's  introductions  to  the  Dialogues 
are  too  well  known  to  require  commendation. 
The  exposition  of  Plato  which  forms  the  appen- 
dix to  Veron's  ^Esthetics  (38)  is  decidedly  super- 
ficial. Monographs  on  Aristotle  are  so  numer- 
ous that  no  complete  list  can  be  attempted  here. 
Doring's  Die  Kunstlehre  des  Aristoteles  (12)  is 
one  of  the  best.  It  contains  a  very  complete 
bibliography.  Teichmiiller's  Aristotelische  For- 
schungen(12)  maybe  recommended  for  care- 
fulness and  minuteness  of  research.  A  recent 
work  is  B^nard's  L'Esth^tique  d'Aristote  et  de 
ses  Successeurs  (Paris:  1890)  done  with  the 
author's  customary  thoroughness.  B^nard  is 
especially  severe  on  those  who  practice  what  he 
calls  VArf  cVaccoucher  les  (jrands  esprits,  i.  e., 
who  read  into  Aristotle  the  results  of  later  spe- 
culation.* 


*Of  the  more  important  monogrraphs  mH  iuoliKiud  in  \he 
•  Guide.'  may  be  mentioned:  (1)  On  Plato:  Ed.  Miiller,  Ueber 
da-s  Nachuliiiiende  in  (1.  Kunst  niirli  IMato  (Uatlljor:  18.'}!),  A. 
Ruge,  Die  Platonl.-H-he  Aesthetik  (Halle:  ISXJ).  Cli.  L<5vCque, 
Piaton.  fondateur  do  TesttK^tlque  (Paris:  1857),  K.  Justl.  Die 
SBsth.  Eh-mente  In  d.  Piaton.  Philos.,  (Marburj;:  IsCO),  Jos.  Re- 
ber,  Plato  und  die  Poe.sio  (Miinchen:  1864),  M.  Reniy,  Plat.  doct. 
de  Artibus  llberallbus  (Halle:  1R6I),  A.  H.  Raabe.   De  Puetlca 


24 

The  standard  history  of  German  aesthetics  is 
that  of  Lotze  (11),  of  which  an  extended  expo- 
sition may  be  found  in  Erdmann's  History  of 
Philosoph.,  Tranfi.,  III.  p.  315-322.  The  Ger- 
man writers  since  Kant  are  treated  with  minute- 
ness by  Von  Hartmann  (10).  Neudecker's  Stu- 
dien  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Aesthetik 
seit  Kant  (Wurz:  1878)  is  vahiable,  though 
much  condensed.  A  brief  review  of  German 
aesthetics  will  be  found  in  Von  Eye's  Das  Reich 
des  Schonen  (25),  p.  38.  For  the  lines  of  de- 
velopment leading  up  to  Kant,  see  Fenner's  Die 
Aesthetik  Kauts  und  seiner  Vorganger  (28). 
The  value  of  Caird's  exposition  of  the  Critique 
of  Judgment  has  been  already  set  fortli.  The 
portion  of  Hegel's  Aesthetik  in  which  the  author 
points  out  the  reawakening  of  the  science  of  art 
that  accompanied  the  reawakening  of  German 


Plat.  (Rotterdam:  18C6),  C.  Von  .Jan.  Die  Tonarten  bei  Plato  (in 
Neue  Jahrb.  f.  Philol.  u.  Paed.,  95:815).  (2)  On  Aristotle:  W. 
Schrader,  De  artis  apud  Arist.  notiono  ac  vi  (Berlin :  1843, 
Miinchen:  1881),  L.  Speiigel.  Ueber  Kiltharsis  ton  pathemS,ton 
bei  Arist.  (Miinclien:  1859).  Martin,  Analyse  critique  de  la  Po6- 
tique  d'  Aristote  (Paris:  1836),  Von  Wartenburg,  Die  Katharsis 
des  Arist.  u.  d.  Oedipus  Colonus  d.  Sophokles  (Berlin:  1866), 
Stahr,  Aristoteles  u.  d.  Wirkung  d.  Trag.  (Berlin:  1859),  Rein- 
kens,  Arist.  lib.  d.  Kuust.  besonders  ub.  d.  Trag.  (Wien:  1870), 
A.  Dehlen,  Die  Theorie  d.  Arist.  u.  d.  Tragodie  d.  Antiken 
Christl.  Naturwissenschaftl.  Weltanschauung  (Gottingen :  1885), 
E.  Jerusalem,   Ueber  d.  Arist.  Einbeiten  im  Drama  (Leipz. : 


25 

philosophy  in  general  ( Aesth.  I,  p.  72-88;  Bo- 
sanquet's  translation,  p.  107-132),  contains  crit- 
iques of  great  interest  on  Kant,  Schiller,  Les- 
sing,  Winckelmaun,  Goethe,  the  Schlegels, 
Fichte,  Solger,  and  Tieck.  Of  especial  value 
for  students  of  philosophy,  is  Mr.  Bernard  Bo- 
sanquet's  masterly  paper  on  The  Part  Played 
by  Aesthetic  in  the  Development  of  Modern 
Philosophy,  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Aristotelian  Society,  v.  1,  No.  2.  For  a  criticism 
of  some  of  the  most  recent  German  (and  other) 
writers,  the  student  may  consult  Th.  Lipps's 
Aesthetische  Litteraturbericht  in  Philos.  Mo- 
natshefte  26:17,  169,323. 

Of  monographs  on  Schiller,  G.  Zimmerman's 
Versuch  einer  Schillerschen  iEsthetik  (Berlin: 
1889)  is  a  careful  specimen  of  research.  On 
Schelling,  chap.  7  of  Watson's  volume  in  the 
Griggs  Philosophical  Classics  (31)  may  be  prof- 

1885).  The  two  essays  of  J.  Beriiay.s  which  hiivt>  played  st)  lin- 
portant  a  part  in  the  dlsciis^sion  of  tlie  Aristolollau  theory  of 
tragedy.  Giuiuiziitfe  d.  verh)rneii  Abliandliini:  d.  .\rist.  iib.  die 
WlrkuiiRd.  Tra;:.  (Bre-^lau:  1K57>.  and  Er^iinzunRzu  Arlstoteles 
PoetlW  (Kheln.  Mu*;.  N.  F.  8.  p.  .Vil-.'iOf.>.  have  been  reprinted  In 
one  volnniu  under  the  title  Zwel  .\l)handl.  ilb.  d.  Arlst.  Theorle 
d.  Drama  (Berlin:  1S.VH.  See  furtlu-r  Bernays's  Brief  an  L 
SpenKCl  Oi).  d.  traj;.  Katliarsls  bel  Arlst.  (Kheln.  Mus.  N.  F, 
14:387.488)  and  Zur  Arlst.  Katharsls-Frage  (Rheln.  Mus.  1."):(j06) 
and  Spensel's  r.ur  "iragischen  Katharsls"  <l.  .\rist.  (Rheln 
Mus.  l.i:4.'>8i. 


26 

itably  consulted.  The  limitations  of  Kedney's 
Exposition  of  Hegel  are  pointed  out  above. 
Some  assistance  may  be  derived  from  Hastie's 
somewhat  over-enthusiastic  introduction  to  his 
translation  of  Hegel  and  Michelet  (27),  and 
valuable  suggestion's  from  Ritchie's  review  of 
Bosanquet's  translation,  Mind  12:  597.  The 
leading  article  in  v.  13  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Review  (by  G.  H.  Lewes?)  is  one  of  the  earliest 
attempts  to  introduce  Hegel's  ^Esthetics  to  En- 
glish readers.*  Both  Michelet  (30)  and  Ulrici 
(Princip  u.  Methode  d.  Hegelschen  Philos. 
Halle;  1841,  p.  216-245),  have  expounded  the 
^sthetik,  but  the  original  will  be  found  in  most 
cases  clearer,  and  ( at  any  rate  in  the  Einleitung 
and  Eintheilung)  briefer,  than  the  exposition. 

Schopenhauer's  aesthetic  doctrines  are  briefly 
touched  upon  by  Helen  Zimmern  in  Arthur 
Schopenhauer:  His  Life  and  Philosophy  (32), 
and  by  Bowen  in  his  Modern  Philosophy  (32), 
and   developed   at   some    length    by    H.    Klee 

*  The  article  contains  considerable  translation,  including  a 
passage  from  Hegel's  iEstlietik  which  has  since  heen  frequently 
quoted:  '"Metre  is  the  first  and  only  condition  absolutely 
demanded  by  poetry,  etc."  See  the  article,  " Poetry  "  by  Th. 
Watts  in  Encyl.  Brit,  ilth  Ed.,  and  Gummere's  Poetics.  Intro- 
duction. That  this  quotation  does  not  accurately  represent 
Hegel's  thought  will  be  apparent  from  a  reading  of  the  Ms- 
thetik,    III.  EftOet  seq. 


27 

(Grunclziige  einer    ^8th.    nach  Schopenhauer, 
Berlin:    1S75),   and   S.    Stransky    ( Versuch  d. 
Entw.    e.    allg.  ^sth.   auf   Schopenhauerischer 
Grundl.    Wien:    1886).     E.    Reich's    Schopen- 
liauer  als  Philosoph  der  Tragodie  (  Wien  1888 ) 
deals  with   an  interesting  feature  of  Schopen- 
hauer's   esthetic.      On    Lotze   see   T.    Kegel's 
Lotze's     ^sthetik     (Gottingen:      188(3),     and 
Ruhr's  Kritische  Untersuchungen  liber  Lotze's 
.^sthetik    (Halle- Wittenberg:     1880).      A  de- 
tailed exposition  of  Fechner  may  be  found  in 
Erdmanu  s  History  of  Philos.,  Trans.,  III.,  296- 
298.  ('Gilt  edge,'  p.  297,  line  21,  is  evidently  a 
slip   on  the   part   of    the   translator.     Goldner 
SchnUl  means,  of  course,  in  aesthetic  terminology, 
'  golden  section '. ) 

In  Contemp.  1:  279,  Prof.  Dowden  discusses 
French  ^Esthetics,  dealint^  with  Cousin,  Jouf- 
froy,  Lamennais,  and  L6v6que.  Joutfroy's  im- 
portance is  over-emphasi/ed.  An  interesting 
article  by  Prof.  Eaton  on  Modern  French  .Es- 
thetics, containing  notices  of  L^vfique,  Chaignet 
and  others,  appeared  in  the  New  Englauder,  49: 
246.  In  the  same  line  is  an  exhaustive  review 
of  L^v&que's  La  Science  du  Beau,  from  the  pen 
of  E.  Saisset  in  the  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes  15  Nov., 
1861,  reprinted  in  the  latter's  L'Ame  et  la  Vie, 


28 

p.  91.  On  Taine  see  the  two  essays  in  vol.  4  of 
Scherer's  Etudes  Critiques  sur  la  Litt6rature, 
p.  253-260,  La  Methode  de  M.  Taine,  p.  261- 
272,  M.  Taine  etla  Pbilosophie  de  I'artgrec;  and 
Prof.  Morris's  Philosophy  of  Art,  Jl.  Spec. 
Philos:  10:  1.  For  the  place  of  the  Cartesian 
philosophy  in  the  history  of  aesthetics,  the 
reader  may  consult  Schasler's  Geschichte,  I. 
280-283  and  Krantz's  Essai  sur  I'esth^tique  de 
Descartes  (Paris;  1882). 

A  few  suggestions  for  help  in  investigating 
special  problems  will  perhaps  be  of  service  to 
the  student  who  is  specializing  in  this  line  of 
research. 

The  Beautiful.  As  every  writer  on  aesthetics 
has  something  to  say  on  this  head,  no  general 
references  need  be  given.  Blackie's  On  Beauty 
(Edinb:  1858)  is  directed  against  the  views  of 
Alison.  A  great  part  of  the  work  is  taken  up 
by  an  exposition  of  the  Beautiful  according  to 
Plato.  Prof.  Blackie  also  contributed  an  article 
on  the  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful  to  the  Con- 
temp.  43:814.  Die  Idee  des  Schonen  in  der 
Platonischen  Philosophie  is  the  title  of  the  first 
volume  of  StrSter's  Studien  zur  Geschichte  der 
Aesthetik  (Bonn:  1861).  On  the  Kantian  con- 
ception of  beauty,  see  Nicolai's  1st  der  Begriff 


29 

des  SchOnen  bei  Kant  consequent  Entwickelt? 
(Kiel:  1889),  and  Blencke's  Die  Trennuug  d. 
SchOnen  vom  Angenebmen  in  Kauts  Kr.  d.  Ur- 
theilskraft  (Leipz:  1888).  Byk's  Physiologie 
des  ScbOuen  (Leipz:  1878)  will  be  found  useful 
to  compare  with  Grant  Allen's  method  of  treat- 
ment of  the  same  subject.  Those  who  are  in- 
terested in  this  phase  of  aesthetics  sliould  not 
overlook  the  paragraphs  on  the  Acquisition  of 
Beauty  in  Darwin's  Origin  of  Species  (para- 
graphs 302-4,  792  I,  and  on  Ideas  of  Beauty,  in 
Descent  of  Man  (2d.  ed.,  p.  92,  410^14,  540- 
541,  573-585,  595-596 ).  A  consideration  of  the 
Beautiful  from  a  speculative  point  of  view  will 
be  found  in  Jl.  Spec.  Philos.  17:94  in  an  article 
by  W.  H.  Kimball.  Kostlin's  Ueber  d.  Schon- 
heitsbegriflf  will  repay  perusal.  For  the  psy- 
chological aspects  of  the  question  see  Dimetres- 
co's  Der  Schouheitsbegriff  (42). 

Thp  Uglij.  Die  Aesthetik  des  Hasslichen  by 
K.  Rosenkranz  (  Konigsberg:  1853)  is  the  most 
comprelK'Usive  work  on  thi.s  subject.  Von  Hart- 
manu  reviews  recent  theories  of  the  Ugly  and 
devotes  considerable  space  to  it  in  his  syste- 
matic testhetics.  See  indexes  to  vols.  1  and  2 
under  hcesslichc.  A  brief  account  of  German 
theories  will  be  found  in  Lotze's  Geschichte,  p. 


3o 

333-342.  By  far  the  ablest  single  article  on  the 
subject  is  Mr.  Bernard  Bosanquet's  paper,  The 
Aesthetic  Theory  of  Ugliness,  in  Proceedings  of 
the  Aristotelian  Society,  No.  3,  Part  1.  Plo- 
tinus  is  generally  named  as  the  first  to  attempt 
an  adequate  analysis  of  the  Ugly.  Other  author- 
ities who  have  treated  it  at  length  are  F.  Schle- 
gel,  Solger,  Weisse,  Ruge,  Von  Kirchmann, 
Schasler,  and  Carriere. 

The  Sublime.  A  short  list  of  those  who  have 
written  upon  the  sublime,  with  a  rapid  sketch 
of  the  opinions  of  each,  will  be  found  in  the  sup- 
plement to  Kedney's  The  Beautiful  and  the  Sub- 
lime (N.  Y.:  1880).  Arthur  Seidl's  Zur  Ge- 
schiclite  des  Erhabenheitsbegriffes  seit  Kant 
considers  with  some  fullness  Kant  and  his  pre- 
decessors (p.  1-15),  and  with  exhaustiveness  the 
writers  with  whom  it  is  especially  concerned. 
The  list  of  books  (p.  vii-x)  that  the  author  has 
not  been  able  to  consult,  is  rather  formidable. 
A  summary  of  Seidl's  conclusions  will  be  found 
in  the  article  by  Prof.  Everett  in  Andover  Re- 
view, August,  1890,  on  the  Philosophy  of  the 
Sublime.  See  also  index  to  vol.  2  of  Von  Hart- 
mann's  Aesthetik,  under  Erliabene,  and  Lotze's 
Geschichte,  p.  324-333.  Hegel's  chapter  Die 
Symbolik  der   Erhabenheit  (Aesth.  I,  p.  454) 


has  been  trauslated  by  Stirling  (Macm.  16:44 
Symbolism  of  the  Sublime).  Cf.  Hegel's  Aesth. 
I.  p.  427  et  seq.  The  Origin  of  the  Sublime  is 
the  title  of  an  article  by  Grant  Allen  in  Miml 
8:324.  See  also  the  treatise  by  Blencke  cited  in 
the  references  on  the  Beautiful. 

The  Pathefic.  The  modern  pliases  of  the 
pathetic  have  not  been  fully  investigated.  Schil- 
ler's essay  on  Pathos  deals  mainly  with  the 
Greek  conception.  Von  Hartmaun  gives  but 
two  pages  to  Das  Patheiische  (vol.  2,  |).  313- 
314),  but  the  entire  chapter  should  be  read; 
especially  the  paragraphs  on  Das  Ruhrcn<le,Das 
Traurige,  DasElegischc  oiler  Wchmnctliigv,  etc. 

The  Comic.     To  the  references  given  on  p. 

46  of  the  'Guide'  may  be  added  the  often  dis- 
cussed definition  of  laughter  found  in  Hobbes's 
English  works  (Lond:  1839-45)  Vol.  3,  p.  45- 

47  (  see  also  vol.  4,  p.  46,  455 ),  Spencer's  Phys- 
iology of  Laughter,  Darwin's  Expression  of  the 
Emotions  (Lond:  1870),  Becker's  Physiol,  u. 
Ps^'chol.  des  Lacheus  (42),  L.  Dnraont's  Des 
Causes  de  Rire  (Paris:  1862),  and  Prof.  Butch- 
er's article  on  the  Evolution  of  Humor,  in 
Harper  80:8i)8.  A  recent  work  is  Masci's  Psi- 
cologia  del  Comico  (Naples:  1880).  For  are- 
view  of  German  theories  see  Lotze's  Geachichte, 


32 

p.  342-352,  Von  Hartmann's  Aesthetik  I.  index 
under  Anthropologischer. 

A  rather  full  bibliography  of  the  subject  will 
be  found  in  Regnard's  Oeuvres  Completes 
(Paris:  1860). 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  useful  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  most  important  sources  of  informa- 
tion on  the  physiological,  psycho-physical,  and 
psychological  aspects  of  Aesthetics. 

Physiological  and  j^sycho-pJiysical.  Notable 
contributions  in  this  field  have  been  made  by 
Burke  (16),  Spencer  (22),  Allen  (15),  Zeising 
(33),  Fechner  (25),Helmholtz  (71  and  Optique 
Physiologique),  Wundt  (33),  and  Ladd  (42). 
An  interesting  article  by  Sorel  on  Psycho- 
physical contributions  to  the  Study  of  Aesthet- 
ics will  be  found  in  Rev.  Philos.  29:561;  30:22. 

Psychological.  In  addition  to  those  given  in 
the  list  on  p.  42-43  of  the  'Guide,'  may  be 
mentioned:  Bain  (15,  16),  Murray,  Handbook 
of  Psychology,  p.  223-235,  387-390,  Lazarus, 
Das  Leben  d.  Seele  (2  v.  Berlin:  1875-78),  C. 
Hermann,  Aesthet.  Farbenlehre  (Leipz:  1876). 
Though  the  subject  of  aesthetic  is  purposely  ex- 
cluded from  James's  Psychology  (N.  T:  1890), 
his  chapters  on  Imagination  and  Feeling  can 
not  fail  to  be  richly  suggestive. 


<i^ 


..-"' 


-'Zi 


i 


University  of  Michigan  Syllabus  and  References 

Extension  Teaching 


THE  INTERPRETATION   OF  ART 

With  special  reference  to  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Michael  Angelo 

SEMINARY 
Conducted  by  Fred  N.  Scott.  Ph.  D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Rhetoric 


PREFATORY   NOTE   FOR   MEMBERS   OF    THE  CLASS 


The  term  Seminary  implies  that  the  main  purpose 
of  the  course  is  original  investigation.  The  lectures 
are  intended  merely  to  furnish  the  tools;  the  work,  if  it 
is  done  at  all,  must  be  done  by  the  individual  student 
out  of  his  own  mental  resources.  The  idea  that  great 
erudition  is  necessary  to  independent  research  in  art 
is  believed  to  be  erroneous.  Kvery  student  who  uses 
what  knowledge  he  already  has,  in  interpreting  the 
results  of  his  ovn\  observations,  is  in  so  far  making 
original  research;  further,  he  is  making  it  in  the  only 
way  in  which  such  research  is  ever  made.  The 
Reports,  therefore,  for  which  suggestions  are  offered, 
are  intended  to  record  the  personal  observations  of" 
the  student  (1)  upon  particular  works  of  art,  where 
these  are  accessible.  (2)  upon  points  made  in  the 
lecture,  or  (3)  upon  material  which  he  may  find  in  the 
reference-books. 

The  object  of  the  Reports  will  be  defeated  unless  a 
spirit  of  independence,  a  determination  not  to  accept 


conventional  opinions  simply  because  they  are  found 
in  books,  is  resolutely  maintained.  In  art  more  almost 
than  in  any  other  subject  that  can  be  named,  the  in- 
cubus of  authority  terrorizes  genuine  appreciation. 

The  Keports  are  of  two  kinds:  (1)  a  main  report,  on 
which  work  is  done  at  pleasure  throughout  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  course  and  which  may  take  the  place 
of  a  final  examination;  (2)  weekly  reports  on  some  one 
or  more  of  the  suggested  questions.  Outlines  for  the 
final  report,  and  special  references,  will  be  furnished 
on  application. 

The  References  in  the  Bibliography  are  given, 
generally,  in  the  order  of  their  importance.  It  has 
been  thought  best  to  cite  a  large  number  of  w^orks 
under  each  head  in  order  that  all  the  resources  of 
public  and  private  libraries  may  be  made  available  to 
the  class:  and  so  to  distinguish  the  merits  of  each,  by 
brief  criticisms,  that  the  student  may  be  able  to  econ- 
omize time  in  the  selection  of  reading-matter.  A 
few  references  have  been  made  to  w^orks  in  foreign 
languages. 

The  following  are  recommended  for  purchase: 
Knight's  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful  (Scribner's 
Sons,  X.  Y.:  1891);  Bosanquet's  translation  of  Hegel's 
Introduction  to  the  Philosophy  of  Fine  Art  (Kegan 
Paul,  Lond.:  1886);  Eichter's  Leonardo  da  Yinci  and 
Clement's  Michael  Angelo  (Great  Artists  Series); 
Schaff's  Renaissance  (Putnam,  X.  Y.:  1891). 

The  lectures  Avill  be  illustrated  by  stereopticon 
views,  or  by  miniature  photographs  distributed  among 
the  audience. 


— 2 — 


OUTLINE  OF  LECTURES 

I    ruiNciPLEs  OF  Interpretation 

1  Meaniiiij  of  aesthetics    Scope  and  nature  of  the 

science     Unsettled  problems 

2  IJrief  sketch  of  the  development  of  modern 

aesthetic  theory 

3  The  nature  of  art     Its  function  in  the  life  of 

the  individual  and  the  state    The  staudard 
of  aesthetic  value 

4  The  several  arts  and  the  stajxes  of  their  develop- 

ment    The  art  of  the  l<.»th  century 

5  Place  of  painting  among  the  arts 

6  The  interpretation  of  pictures 
II    Art  and  the  Renaissance 

1  The  middle  ages     Divorce  of  brain  and  hand 

The  mediaeval  hypnotism 

2  The  awakening      Discovery  of  man  and  the 

state    Phases  of  the  movement 

3  Reasons  for  the  artistic  aspect  of  the  Renais- 

sance   The  demand  for  expression 

4  The  special  function  of  painting  in  the  Renais- 

sance 

5  Rapid  sketch  of  painting  from  Cimabue  to 

Leonardo 

III  Leonardo    da    Vinci— The    first   and    second 

periods  of  his  life 

1  Early  lif(>  and  training 

2  Inlluences  of  the  time;  in  society,  politics  and 

religion 

3  Personal  character  of  the  man 

4  Early  paintings 

5  The  Last  Supper 

IV  Leonardo  da  Vinci— Third  period  of  his  life 
1    Events  of  this  period 


—3— 


2  Paintings  and  drawings 

3  The  Mona  Lisa 

4  Leonardo  as  scientist 

5  His  contribution  to  art 

6  Leonardo's    place   in    the    movement   of   the 

Eenaissance 

y    Michael  Angelo— Life  and  minor  works 

1  Early  life  and  training 

2  Influences— relations  with  Lorenzo— with  the 

Popes — with   Savonarola — with    Yittoria 
Colonna — with  Leonardo  and  Raphael 

3  Michael  Angelo  as  engineer 

4  As  sculptor  and  architect 

5  As  poet 

6  As  painter — characteristics 

VI    The  Sistine  Frescoes 

1  Plan  of  the  Avhole 

2  Interpretation   of   the    ceiling— the   compart- 

ments 

3  The  Sibyls 

4  The  Prophets 

5  Interpretation  of  the  Last  Judgment 

6  What  Michael  Angelo  did  for  the  Eenaissance 

and  the  19th  century 


SUBJECTS  FOR  THE  FINAL  REPORT 

A      iNTKKl'HKTATIOX   OK   PlCTinivS 

1  A     detailed    interpretation     of    (a)    Michael 

Angelo's  Creation  of  ^[an,  or  (b)  of  the 
Delphic,  Persian,  and  Cumaean  Sibyls,  or 
(c)  any  three  of  tlie  Propliets 

2  Detailed  description  of  ceiling  of  Sistine  chapel, 

accounting  for  the  arrangement  of  all  the 
figures  (Duppa's  Life  of  Michael  Angelo, 
Plate  3;  Liibke's  Mist,  of  Art,  ^"ol.  2,  p  304; 
AV^oltmann  and  Woerraanu's  Hist,  of  Paint- 
ing, Vol.  2,  page  491) 

3  Comparison  of  Leonardo's  Last  Supper  with 

representations  of  the  same  scene  by  other 
Italiin  artists  (Mrs.  .Jameson's  Sacred  and 
Legendary  Art,  and  History  of  our  Lord) 

4  Motives  of  the  Sistine  frescoes  compared  with 

those  of  illustrations  in  American  mag- 
azines 

5  Kealism  and  Idealism  in  Italian  Art     (For  the 

meaning    of    these    terms,    see    Everett's 
PoetJ.  Comedy,  and  Duty,  p.  88-97;  Fort- 
nightly 48:118;  Scribner's  Mag.  X.  S.,  2:241) 
B    Theory  of  Art 

1  Aesthetic    ideas   of    children    in    the    public 

schools  (The  data  to  be  obtained  by  obser- 
vation A  list  of  questions  will  be  fur- 
nished) 

2  Aesthetic  environment  of  the  American  citizen, 

from  personal  observation 

3  The  art-instinct  in  municipal  or  state  politics 

(Data  to  be  gathered  from  personal  obser- 
vation and  from  newspapers) 

4  The  political  "  machine  "  as  a  work  of  art 

—5— 


5  The  art-impulse  as  manifested  in  American 

trade,  industries,  or  business 

6  Methods  of  distribution  of  American  art 

7  Ethical  effect  of  the  average  aesthetic  environ- 

ment in  American  cities 

8  Influence  of  the  railroad  on  aesthetic  apprecia- 

tion m  America 

9  Difference   between   economic   and   aesthetic 

value 

10  Difference  between  fine  and  useful  art,  using 

the  works  of  Leonardo  or  Michael  Angelo 
as  examples  of  the  one,  and  the  telephone 
as  an  example  of  the  other 

11  Difference  between  Taine's  theory  of  criticism 

as  set  forth  in  his  Philosophy  of  Art,  and 
his  practice  in  the  criticism  of  painting  in 
his  Italy,  Naples,  and  Kome,  and  Italy, 
Florence,  and  Venice 

12  Hegel's  use  of  the  terms  classic  and  romantic 

art  compared  with  the  usage  of  other 
authorities  (Bosanquet's  translation,  p 
148-157;  Jl.  Spec.  Philos.,  Vols.  12-13;  No. 
Am.  Rev.  84:385;  Atlan.  Mo.  57:309; 
Schlegel's  Hist,  of  Literature;  James's  Psy- 
chology II,  p.  468-72) 

13  The  art-impulse  according  to  Schiller  and  Spen- 

cer (See  Schiller's  Aesthetic  Letters,  and 
Spencer's  Psychology,  chapter  on  the  aes- 
thetic sentiments) 

C    Italian  Artists 

1  Eeligious  (or  irreligious)  character  of  Italian 

painters  as  exhibited  in  Vasari's  Lives 

2  Comparison  of  Leonardo  and  Goethe 

3  Leonardo's  theory  of   painting,  as    exhibited 

in  his  Treatise,  compared  with  Ruskin's 

4  Michael  Angelo  and  Savonarola 

5  A  study  of  IMichael  Angelo's  Sonnets  as  an 

index  of  his  life  and  character 

6  Trace    the    steps    by  which  Michael   Angelo 

passed  from  the  conception  of  the  Piet^ 
(St.  Peter's)  to  the  representation  of  the 
same  personages  in  the  Last  Judgment 

—6— 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  WEEKLY  REPORTS 

FiKST  "Week 

1  I  low  have  you  been  accustomed  to  tell  a  good 

picture  from  a  bad  one  ? 

2  Wliat  benefit  do  you  get  from  examining  works 

of  art  V 

3  Do  the  old  masters  give  you  any  great  satisfac- 

tion V  and  if  so,  of  what  kind? 

4  Do  you  ever  tire  of  famous  paintings  or  repro- 

ductions of  them  hung  where  you  can  see 
them  daily?    What    pictures    have    thus 
affected  you  ? 

5  Does  the  inspection  of  art  make  you  any  better 

natured,  more  hopeful,  more  attentive  to 
business,  better  satisfied  with  the  humdrum 
of  life— or  the  reverse? 

6  Selecting  any  one  of  the  pictures  by  Leonardo 

or  Micliael  Angelo,  tell  what  you  like,  or 
dislike  in  it,  and  give  your  reasons 

7  Selecting  one   of  the  pictures  that  you  have 

neither  seen,  nor  read  about,  describe  it 
minutely  and  give  your  own  opinion  as  to 
its  meaning 

8  Selecting  any  picture  by  Michael  Angelo,  point 

out  what  elements  you  consider  as  beautiful 
and  what,  though  not  beautiful,  you  find 
attractive  and  interesting 

9  "What  is  the  most  characteristic  specimen  of 

American  art  you  remember  to  have  seen, 
and  what  do  you  regard  as  its  distinctively 
American  feature  ? 
Second  "W'eek 

1    Indicate  the  main  currents  in  the  Renaissance 
movement 

—7— 


2  Who  were  the  prime  movers,  and  what,  in  brief, 

are  they  supposed  to  have  contributed  to 
the  movement  ? 

3  ^YhSLt  advance  was  made  in  thought— in  views 

of  man  and  his  relations  to  society,  God 
and  nature— during  this  period? 

4  What   Avas   the    service    of    painting   to   the 

Renaissance  ? 

5  "VVhy   should   painting  rather  than  sculpture, 

architecture,  or  music  be  the  characteristic 
art  of  the  Eenaissance  ? 

6  What  office  did  painting  fulfil  that  literature 

could  not  have  fulfilled  as  well 

7  If  paintiug  did  its  perfect  work  at  that  time, 

of  what  use  are  the  Old  Masters  to  us  of 
to-day? 

8  Compare  two  pictures,  one  from  the  early  and 

one  from  the  late  Eenaissance,  pointing  out 
the  significance  of  the  differences  between 
them 

Third  Week 

1  Personal  character  of  Leonardo 

2  His  character  read  from  his  picture  of  himself 

3  Influences  political,  religious,  etc.,  during  his 

early  life 

4  How    do   you  explain  his-  indolence  and  his 

scientific  bent  ? 

5  Biblical  and  other  authorities  for  the  character- 

ization of  the  figures  in  the  Last  Supper 

6  Does  Goethe  seem  to  you  to  be  at  fault  in  any 

particular  in  his  interpretation  ? 

7  Original  and  borrowed  ideas  in  the  Last  Supper 

8  Are  any  elements  of  the  picture  displeasing  to 

you? 

9  What  has  Leonardo's  Last  Supper  to  say  to  us 

of  to-day  in  this  country  ? 

Fourth  Week 

1    What  is  the  value  of  Leonardo's  contribution 
to  science  ? 

—8— 


9 


2  What  was  his  contribution  to  Uw  movement  of 

intellifjeni-e  in  the  Henaissance  V 

3  Common  characteristics  of  Leonardo's  various 

paintings  and  designs 

4  Is  your  enjoyment  of  Leonardo's  w<.rk  alTected 

bv  vour  study  of  it?    If  so,  in  what  way  f 

5  Do  you'tind  the  Mona  Lisa  disappointing?    In 

what  particulars? 
rt    Describe  tlie   features  of    the   Mona    Lisa   in 
detail,  giving  the  expression  of  each,  and 
the  combined  effect 

7  Do  you  regard  anything  about  the  picture  as 

"  indescribable  ?  "  If  you  mean  that  no  one 
will  ever  be  able  to  describe  it,  on  what 
grounds  do  vou  assert  such  impossibility  ? 

8  In  what  way  is  the  world  better  (or  worse)  off 

for  the  existence  of  this  painting? 

Fifth  Week 

1  Account  for  Michael  Angelo's  preference  for 

sculpture 

2  Meaning  of  his  "  terribleness  " 

3  Point  out  the  "terrible"  features  in  one  of 

Michael  Angelo's  pictures 

4  What  political,  religious,  or  philosophical  prob- 

lems did  Michael  Angelo  help  to  solve? 

5  Michael  Angelo's  relations  with  Savonarola 

6  Passages  from  the  Sonnets  that  throw  light  on 

his  character  and  motives 

7  Can  you  conceive  how  the  "  Moses  "  wcmld  have 

appeared  had  he  been  compelled  to  make  a 

painting  of  it? 

8  Did  Michael  Angelo  express  anything  in  paint- 

ing which  he  could  not  have  expressed  as 
well  in  sculpture? 

Sixth  Week 

1  Borrowed  and  original  ideas  m  the  ceiling  of 

the  Sistine 

2  What  is  the  central  idea  of  the  whole  design? 

— ()— 


3  Interpretation  of  the  Creation  of  the  Sun  and 

Moon,  or  of  one  of  the  Sibyls  or  Prophets 

4  Conventional  elements  in  the  frescoes 

5  Biblical  or  other  authorities  for  any  one  of  the 

scenes  or  figures  of  the  ceiling 

6  Sources  for  the  motives  of  the  Sibyls 

7  Interpretation  of  the  faces  and  attitudes  of 

Christ  and  the  Virgin  in  the  Last  Judgment 

8  Identification  of  the  Martyrs,  or  of  the  Old  and 

New  Testament  characters  ? 

9  Religious  belief  embodied  in  the  Last  Judgment 
10    Of  what  value  are  the  frescoes  in  the  Sistine 

chapel  to  modern  citizens  of  the  United 
States  ? 


-10 — 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Ln-KKATiitK  OK  Akstiiktics.— A  r.uide  to  the 
Literatuivof  Aestlii'tics,  a  cliissilied  biblio^n-a])liy  by 
C.  M.  (Javlev  and  V.  N.  Scott,  is  obtainable  at  a  nomi- 
nal prifeliom  Librarian  Tniv.of  California.  ]?eikeley. 
Aeslliftics,  its  Problems  and  Literature,  by  F.  N.  Scott 
(Inland  I'ress,  Ann  Arbor),  tjives  classilication  of  prob- 
lems, courses  of  reading:,  and  critical  comments.  The 
bibliography  of  Knight's  rhilosophy  of  the  lieautiful 
is  extensive. 

(iKXKKAL  TiiKOiiY  OF  AuT.— Knii^ht's  lMiilosoi)hy 
of  the  Keautiful.  though  consisting  of  detached  sum- 
maries in  which  little  attempt  is  made  to  show  the 
movement  of  thought,  is  the  simplest  introduction 
to  aesthetic  theory.  The  best  single  treatise  for 
the  serious  studeiit  is  IJosanquet's  Translation  of 
Kegel's  Introduction  to  the  iniilosophy  of  Fine  Art. 
Everett's  Poetry,  Comedy,  and  Duty,  excellent  for 
beginners,  treats  mainly  of  poetry;  his  Science  of 
Thought  contains  chapters  on  the  general  theory.  Sul- 
ly's article  •  Aesthetics '  in  the  Kncycl.  r>rit.,  is  valuable 
for  its  statement  of  problems  (pub.  in  Humboldt  Libr., 
loc);  the  articles  on  'Art'  and  'Fine  Art'  by  Colvin  are 
easv  reading,  but  do  not  go  much  below  the  surface. 
Van  Dvke's  Principles  of  .\rt  is  a  useful  little  book,  but 
opinionated.  .V  clear  i>resentation  of  fundamentals 
will  be  found  in  Prof.  Seelev's  article  Klementary 
Principles  of  Art.  Macmillan's  .Mag.  1<>:1,  and  in  Ilam- 
erton's  Portfolio  Pai)ers.  ji.  l«):S-24t)  and  ]).  24H  2»")7. 
For  those  in  search  of  simjile  and  convenient  critical 
tests,  the  line  of  tliougiit  devejoix-d  by  (i.  H.  Lewes 
in  his  Principles  of  Siu-cess  in  Literature  (Boston:  IHIU) 
will  be  found  especially  helpful. 

The  references  given  above  are  for  the  general 
reader.  Those  who  care  to  go  more  deeply  into  the 
subject  should  pursue  it  as  a  branch  of  the  history  of 
philosoi)hv.  For  outline  of  such  ii  course  see  Aes- 
thetics, its  Problems  and  Literature  referred  to  above. 
The  mastery  of  modern  aesthetics  lies  through  a  study 
of  two  miiin  lines  of  thought:  (1)  (Jerman  speculation, 
including  Winckelmann.  Kant.  Schiller,  (ioethe,  and 
Hegel;  Cl)  evolutionist  si»eculation,  rei)resented  prin- 
cipally   by    Taine,    Spencer,    Allen,   Main  and  Sully. 

— n — 


Much  of  Hegel's  monumental  Aesthetik  is  now  avail- 
able in  Ensrlish.  Besides  Bosanquet's  translation, 
which  furnishes  the  key  to  the  whole  work,  may  be 
mentioned  Kedney's  Exposition  in  Griggs'  Philos. 
Classics  (in  which  Hegel  is,  liowever,  sadljj  Kedney- 
ized),  and  the  translations  in  the  Jl.  Spec.  Philos.,  Vols. 
1-3,  5-7,  11-12.  Short  papers  from  the  Hegelian  point  of 
view,  are  Ker's  Philosophy  of  Art  in  Seth  and  Hal- 
dane's  Philosophical  Essays;  Morris's  Philosophv  of 
Art,  Jl.  Spec.  Philos.  10:1;  and  W.  T.  Harris's  Art 
and  Eeligion,  Jl.  Spec.  Philos.  10:204.  A  popular 
exposition  of  Hegel's  theory  of  the  development  of  the 
arts  may  be  found  in  Vernon  Lee's  article  Compara- 
tive Aesthetics.  Contemp.  Rev.  38:300. 

Turning  to  the  other  side,  Taine's  theories  are  set 
forth  in  his  Ideal  in  Art  and  Philosophy  of  Art,  Spen- 
cer's in  the  last  chapter  of  his  Psychology.  Grant 
Allen's  Physiological  Aesthetics  is  an  expansion  of 
Spencer's  theory.  Sully,  in  his  Sensation  and  Intuition , 
Essay  13,  sketches  the  science  from  the  evolutionist 
point  of  view.  The  course  of  modern  aesthetic  theory 
is  best  outlined  in  Bosanquet's  papers  in  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Aristotelian  Society.  These  Avill  be  incor- 
porated in  the  author's  History  of  Aesthetic,  which 
promises  to  be  the  standard  English  work  on  this  sub- 
ject. 

Ruskin  deserves  a  paragraph  to  himself.  His  way- 
ward theorizings  on  aesthetics  become  intelligible  only 
when  interpreted  as  part  of  the  whole  movement  of 
thought.  The  general  reader,  will  do  well,  therefore,  to 
pass  them  by,  accepting  gratefully  Ruskin's  remarkable 
transcripts  bf  his  own  observations  in  nature  and  art. 

Painting.— On  the  relation  of  the  fine  arts  to  one 
another,  nothing  in  English  is  so  good  as  the  papers  in 
the  Proceedings  of  the  Aristotelian  Society.  Treatises 
on  technique  are  legion.  The  simplest  are  W.  B. 
Scott's  Half-hour  Lectures  on  the  History  and  Prac- 
tice of  the  Fine  and  Ornamental  Arts,  Lects.  14-15; 
Hamerton's  Graphic  Arts.  chap.  20-21;  the  articles 
on  'Fresco'  and  'Painting'  in  Encycl.  Brit.,  9th  Ed. 
On  the  introduction  of  oil  ])ainting  into  Italy,  see  the 
note.  p.  214,  in  Eastlake's  materials  for  a  History  of  Oil 
Painting.  Van  Dyke's  How  to  Judge  of  a  Picture  is 
an  excellent  brief  exposition  of  such  terms  as  perspec- 
tive, value,  tone,  etc.  See  also  Lucy  Crane's  Art  and 
the  Formation  of  Taste,  Lect.  6;  and  Veron's 
Aesthetics,  chapter  on  Painting. 

The  Renaissance.— Schaff's  small  volume,  though 
a  mere  collection  of  sketches,  makes  an  excellent 
hand-book.    The  bibliography  is  valuable.    The  best 


-12- 


short  articlo  is  Sviiionds'  '  Uonaissancc'  in  the  Kiioycl. 
Ikit.  Syinonds'"  Ixcnaissaiice  in  Italy,  sev(Mi  larpe 
voluiues'fnll  of  tloritl  rln'toric,  is  tlio  standard  l^n^lish 
work.  It  is  crowdi'd  witli  information  and  rcadal)!^  as 
a  novel.  A  topical  arranpcMnent  (in  wliich  art  as  such 
linds  no  idaro)  is  followed  in  Hiirckliardt's  Civilization 
of  the  Renaissance,  a  tlinroniihly  trnstworthy  work  and 
one  tlisplavinj;  immense  research.  'I'lie  Hevival  of 
J.etters  in"the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries  is 
the  title  of  a  series  of  semi-popular  papers  by  Kx.- 
I'rest.  T.  1).  Woolsev  in  Now  Kng.  23:f)(il ;  21  ::55,  414,  ()05. 
:Michelet's  Ilenaissance,  the  7th  vol.  of  his  Hist,  of 
France,  is  brilliant  and  sii-^'^jestive.  For  bibliography 
of  si)ecial  features  see  begiimins  of  SchaH's  chapters. 

Hknai.ss.vnck  AuT.--Standard  works  are  Lid)ke's 
History  of  Art,  vol.  2;  AVoltmami  and  Woermann's  Ilis- 
torvof"Paintin<?,V()1.2:Eastlake's(Kugler's)  Handbook 
of  VainfiuK',  The  Italian  Schools  (oth  ed.  rev.  by  Lay- 
ard);  Symonds'  Renaissance,  The  Fine  Arts.  Middle- 
ton's  article  '  Schools  of  Painting'  in  ICncycl.  Hrit.  has 
an  extensive  bibliojjraphy.  A  popular  and  well  illus- 
trated work  is  Leader  Scott's  Renaissance  of  Art  in 
Italy.  Pater's  Studies  in  the  History  of  the  Renais- 
f^ance  (reviewed  bv  Morley,  Fortn.  lii:4»)'.»,  by  Stillman, 
Nation  17:243)  consists  of  detached  essays  in  which 
the  •  tlavor '  of  the  period  is  conveyed  by  subtle  sug- 
gestion and  emotional  description.  The  same  method 
IS  emploved  in  Vernon  Lee's  Euphorion.  A  sugges- 
tive review  bv  Hamerton  of  Miintz's  Renaissance  was 
published  in  the  Portfolio  21:57.  For  origimil  investi- 
gators, such  works  as  Vasari's  Lives  of  the  Painters; 
Mrs.  Jameson's  Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters, 
Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders,  Legends  of  the 
:Madoinia,  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art,  and  History  of 
our  Lord  (Compl.  bv  Ladv  Fastlake);  Lanzi's  History 
of  Painting  in  Italv;  and  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle's 
Histories  of  Painting  in  Italy  and  in  North  Italy;  are 
reservoirs  of  detailed  information.  Of  a  more  popular 
character  are  Hurckhardt's  Cicerone  (eminently  trust- 
worthv);  Middlemore's  The  C.reat  .Age  of  Italian  Paint- 
ing; I'ovnter  and  Head's  Italian  Painting  (in  Art 
Ednca.  Ser.).  In  Italian  masters  in  Oerman  (lalleries, 
Vt.  Morelli  illustrates  the  "experimental  method"  of 
criticism,  identifying  each  painter  by  his  manner  of  ex- 
pressing details  of  the  human  form.  Readers  of  Ger- 
man will  lind  in  Ivumohr's  Italienische  Forschungeu 
and  Drei  Ileiseu  the  foundation  of  later  research. 

Lkon.vudo.— The  best  small  work  is  Richter's  Leon- 
ardo in  the  Great  Artists  series;  the  best  single  article 
that  of  Colvin,  Encyl.  IJrit.  (see  bibliography  at  close). 

—13— 


Mrs.  Sweetser's  small  volume  in  Artist  Biographies, 
based  on  Houssaye's  work,  has  no  illustrations.  Mrs. 
Heaton's  handsome  volume  is  of  value  chielly  for  its 
photographs,  which  include  many  designs  as  well  as 
the  Chief  works.  Brown's  Life  of  Leonardo,  some- 
what dull,  is  prefixed  to  Bigaud's  Trans,  of  Leonar- 
do's Treatise  on  Painting.  A  good  short  biography  is 
Stillman's  article  in  Century  for  April,  1891,  with  Cole's 
perfect  engravings  of  the  Mona  Lisa,  the  Goldsmith, 
and  the  Adoration;  the  criticisms  are  superficial.  See 
also  Century  for  May,  1890,  p.  94,  for  Cole's  engraving 
of  the  angels,  and  comments,  p.  99-101.  Pater's  essay 
in  his  Studies  in  the  History  of  the  Benaissance,  with 
its  remarkable  characterization  of  the  Mona  Lisa,  has 
become  classic.  (See  Wilde's  curious  remark  in  19th 
Century  28:144). 

Vasari's  Lives  of  the  Painters  is  still  the  great 
storehouse  of  biography,  though  Milanesi  and  others 
have  shown  many  of  his  good  stories  to  be  merely  hen 
trovato.  Extended  notices  of  Leonardo  with  estimates 
of  his  works,  occur  in  Liibke's  Hist,  of  Art,  vol.  2,  p. 
280-290;  Woltmann  and  Woermann'sHist.of  Painting, 
vol.  2,  p.  461^75;  Lady  Eastlake's  Five  Great  Painters, 
p.  1-97  (reprinted  from  Edinb.  Bev.  for  Jan.,  1875); 
Eastlake's  Handbook  of  1  talian  Schools,  vol.  2,  p.  347- 
370;  Morelli's  Italian  Masters  in  German  Galleries; 
D'Anvers'  Elementary  History  of  Art,  p.  35(>-361; 
Symonds'  Benaissance,  The  Fine  Arts,  p.  313-327; 
Yiardot's  Illustr.  Hist,  of  Painters,  p.  88-94;  Lanzi's 
Hist,  of  Painting,  vol.  1,  p.  147-K52;  Champlin's  Cyclo- 
paedia of  Painters ;  Clement's  Michael  Angelo,  Leon- 
ardo, and  Baphael  (excellent  in  arrangement,  but  crit- 
ically weak);  Clara  E.  Clement's  Handbook  of  Paint- 
ers, p.  605-612.  For  references  to  Leonardo  inTaine's 
Italy,  Florence,  and  Venice,  see  index  under  '  Vinci '. 
The  brief  but  valuable  criticisms  and  comparisons  iu 
Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  are  indexed  under  'Leonardo* 
(see  in  particular  the  description  of  the  angels  in 
Verrocchio's  Baptism  of  Christ,  Hist,  of  Painting  in 
Italy,  Vol  2,  p.  406-9). 

Those  who  read  German  may  be  referred  to  the 
readable  life  and  philosophical  criticisms  in  Carriere's 
Die  Kunst  in  Zusammenhang  d.  Culturentwickelung, 
Bd.  4,  p.  120-135,  the  trustworthy  article  by  Brun 
in  Dohme's  Kunst  u.  Kiinstler,  Bd.  3,  No.  61,  and 
Bichter's  Leonardo-Studien,  Zeitsch  f.  Bild.  Kunst, 
1880-81.  Beaders  of  French  will  find  an  entertaining 
essay  by  G.  Blanche  in  Bev.  d.  deux  Mondes  1  Sept. 
1850,  and  another  by  Clement  (afterwards  incorpor- 
ated in  his  book)  in  the  same  magazine  1  Avril  1860. 

—14— 


Articles  of  a  peneral  cluvract^r  will  bo  f<'".'  n 
^rribner  17- :«7;  Kd.  Hov.  141  ::{'.•;  For  Q^'Xri.  hy.lW; 
VVes  inster  r,3  28o;  Lond.  (Mart.  4r,:323;  lackwood 
44to  (a    coiHi.arison  ut    Leonardo    and  Correggio); 

'^llnKual^S^scientist.see  his  own  Treatise  on 
Painting  (transl.  in  Hohn  Library);  1  he  ^^^say  «m,the 
Scientitic  and  Literary  works  of  I^eonardo  by  ( ^  C. 
IMaek  in  Mrs.  Ileaton's  Leonardo;  li|""«tts  paper  on 

Leonardo  as  a  P.otanist.  Natnre  2:-*-:  J^V-nrS^I 
remHrkahle  statenuMit  n'parding  Leonardos  know  lege 

of  anatomy,  Art  Jonrnal  torlho2  p.  4..:  ••f/l^"' ^J^'J" 
eratnre  of  Europe.  Vol.  1.  p.  3o:M  (espenally  the  foot- 
note)' and  Kieliter-s  Literary  Works  of  Leonardo. 

Kenuirks  on  Le.-nardo's  drawings  will  be  found  in 
('•irr's  'am"rs,.n  Art.p.  4-48,  and  Wallis's  Drawings 
from  the  Old  Masters,  Art  J.  for  1882.  p.  33  (see  also 
34:3b-.  for  iUnstration).  Many  reproductions  of  sketch- 
es bv  Leonardo  occur  in  Munt7.  s  articles  in  L  Art  tor 
1S87-I  pp.  <'l.  154,  ISO;  1887-11,  p.  6o:  188'.>-I,  p.  124, 
1889-11   p.  1.     (See  also  1882-1 11,  p.  1.10). 

TiiF   L  VST   SrrrER.— Besides  the  descriptions  in 
the  treatises  already  cited,  see  (Joethe's  celebrated  in- 
terpretation, translated  in  .Tl.  >V^<^-}^''lf  ,}.-'f  If,?,": 
the  (;erman  original  see   Hemp  1    ^^  Vm  ^'':r  wilt  itt ' 
Cotta  Fd    Hd  31.  p.  .',();  Cotta  sche   IJibl.   d.    U  elt  itt., 
Hd  30  1)  'l5l»-  Mrs.  .laineson's  Sacred  and  Legendary 
\rt  Vol.'l   p.2.>l-277(with  picture  of  Last  Suppers  by 
(liotto    Leonardo  and  Paipiiael),  and  History  of  Our 
Tord    D    l'.t-23-   Lloyd's  somewhat  sentimental  paper 
in  Portfolio  2:13;   Saunder's  Critical   Description,  in 
Brown's  Life  of   Leonardo,  p.  17'.M9y;  the  art.de    n 
The  Fine  \rts  5:20t  with  reproduction  of  the   N  emce 
studv;  the  note  by  the  Countess  de  Kr^ckow  in  Am. 
Architect  '25:145  on  Stang's  engraving;  and  the  cnr. 

^'"^i';,'';,''»■  "^Air,r...o.-Clemenfs  Michael  AnRelo  in 
the*(ireat  Artists  Series  is  a  good  biography,  but  senti- 
mental and  exclamatory  in  its  criticisms      fhe  same 
remark  apidies  to  his  larger    w<.rk.  Michael  Angeb) 
Leonardo    Haphael.     The  engraymgs  in  the  sma  ler 
book  are  fairly  accurate  (but  compare  tbe  character- 
less face  of  the   Delphic  Sibyl,  opp.  v.  4»),  \Mth  the 
photograph  or  Cole's  engraying).    Tiie  best  short  arti- 
des  Covin's  in  the  Kncyd.  Brit,  (b.bh.gr.  at  close) 
Stniman's  artide  in  Century  for  Nov.  Wn  is  too  brief 
to  be  of  much  value,  and  the  criticisms  are  yer>  diea 
goods.    Cole's  engravings  of  the  Delphic  and  (  umaean 
Sibyls  are.  however,  faultless.    Mrs.  Sweetzer  s  vo  ume 
in  Artist  Biographies  is  short  and  concise.     The  stana- 


—  I! 


arc!  work  is  Grimm's  Life  in  two  volumes,  available  in 
a  poor  translation.  It  is  delightful  reading  and  very- 
comprehensive.  (See  review  in  Nation  1:533).  The 
material  for  AVilson's  compendious  work  is  in  part 
taken  from  the  biography  by  Gotti.  Black's  ]\[ichael 
Angelo  is  valuable  chielly  for  its  photographs,  lists  of 
works,  and  inclusive  bibiography  (at  the  close).  The 
original  Life  by  Duppa  (repr.  in  Bohn  Libr.)  contains 
many  engravings  (some  of  them  grotesquely  unlike 
the  originals),  and  Michael  Angelo's  sonnets  in  the 
Italian.  Harfoi'd's  Life  (rev.  in  Ed.  Rev.  106:507) 
contains  much  translation. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  more  valuable  bio- , 
graphics  and  criticisms;  Vasari's  Lives,  Vol.  5  (long  and 
full  of  anecdote);  Liibke's  Hist,  of  Art,  Vol  2,  p.  301- 
315;  Woltmann  and  Woermann's  Hist,  of  Painting, 
Vol.  2.  p.  487-500;  Symonds'  Benaissance,  The  Fine 
Arts,  p.  384-480;  Lady  Eastlake's  Five  Great  Painters, 
p.  101-212  (rep.  from  "Ed.  Bev.  for  July  1876);  Cham- 
plin's  Cyclopaedia  of  Painters;  Clara  E.  Clement's 
Handbook  of  Painters,  p.  14C^165;  Perkins'  Baphael 
and  Michael  Angelo  (in  alternate  chapters);  Eastlake's 
Handbook  of  Painting,  Vol.  2,  p.  370-389;  D'Anvers' 
Elementary  Hist,  of  Art,  p.  362-368;  Mrs.  Oliphant's 
Makers  of  Florence,  Chap.  15  (very  readable);  Viar- 
dot's  niust.  Hist,  of  Painters,  p.  105-112.  See  Cellini's 
Autobiography  (Chap.  3  of  the  translation)  for  account 
of  the  quarrel  with  Torrigiano.  Following  are  some 
of  the  noteworthy  criticisms  of  a  general  character. 
The  references  to  Michael  Angelo  in  Mrs.  .Jameson's 
History  of  Our  Lord,  Legends  of  the  Madonna,  Sacred 
and  Legendary  Art,  and  Legends  of  the  ISlonastic 
Orders,  may  be  traced  by  consulting  index  under  'An- 
gelo.' For  Taine's  always  interesting  impressions  (in 
which  he  generally  deserts  his  theories)  see  his  Italy- 
Naples,  and  Bome,  Bk.  Ill,  Chap.  9,  and  Italy,  Flor- 
ence, and  Venice,  index  under  'Michael.'  Buskin  has 
frequent  references  to  Michael  Angelo  in  his  Modern 
Painters;  see  index.  Of  greater  value  is  his  paper  on 
The  Belation  between  Michael  Angelo  and  Tintoret 
(Orpington:  1880).  Further  criticisms  will  be  found  in 
Jarves'  Art  Studies,  Chap.  14;  Owen's  Art  Schools  of 
Mediaeval  Christendom,  Chaps.  13-14;  Plielps'  essay 
on  Plagiarisms  of  the  Old  Masters,  Magazine  of  xlrt, 
1889,  p.  257;  and  Poynter's  Ten  Lectures  on  Art,  (dwel- 
ling esp.  on  M.  A."'s  realism).  German  readers  will 
find  able  criticism  in  Carriere's  Die  Kunst  in  Zusam- 
menhang  d.  Culturentwickelung,  Bd.  4,  p.  135-152,  and 
Springer's  article  in  Dohme's  Kunst  u.  Kiinstler.  An 
interesting   biographical    sketch  by  Blaze  de  Bury, 

— 16— 


dealing  with  Michael  Antrelo'"*  political  relations,  will 
be  fouiul  ill  llev.  d.  ck'ux  .Xlomlcs  I  Fevr.  187S.  Among 
almost  iiinunuM-ahU'  majj:azinc  artirlcs.  the  most  valu- 
able an-  (lalaw  I'.til'.iS;  IWackwoud.  lIS:lf.l:  I'Mitar. 
liev.  Il:til2;  W!  li.  Scott's  j;\iter  in  rortfulio  *\')>i; 
Trollope's  essav  in  No.  Am.  l-Jo:!'.)'.*;  (^larlo^ly  Hev. 
10:i:KU5;  and  illackwood  144 rioS (a  somewhat  bond)astic 
essav  bv  W.  W.  Storv,  rei»r.  in  his  Kxcursions  in  Art 
and"r.eiters).  The  paper  bv  Dr.  Harris  in  .11.  Spec. 
Philos.  ll:-2iM.  on  the  Fates,  is  a  model  of  interiireta- 
tion.  (Tompare,  on  the  Fates,  Owen's  .Vrt  Schools, 
chap.  14,  and  Tvrwhitt's  Christian  Art  ami  Symbolism, 
Lect.  4.) 

On  Michael  Anpelo's  poems,  see  Ed.  Kov.  tr>S:l,antt 
the  translations  in  the  Live^  by  Harford  and  Dnppa. 
Translations  of  the  Sonnets  wi'll  be  fonnd  in  Symonds' 
edition  and  in  his  Renaissance.  The  Fine  Arts,  p. 
527.  For  the  oricrinals  see  Dnjipa's  Life,  p.  420,  and 
Jordan's  editioji  (Leipzig:  1875,  with  German  trans,  by 
Sophie  Ilasendever). 

With  regard  to  Michael  Angelo's  drawings,  see 
Robinson's  Critical  Account  of  the  drawings  in  the 
Oxford  (ialleries;  the  book  of  Etchings,  by  .Tos. 
Fisher,  of  the  same  drawings;  the  illustrated  paper  by 
Wallis  in  Art  .T.  for  18S2.  ]».  l.'/2:  Fagan's  Art  of 
:Michael  .\ngelo  (on  Hrit.  Museum  Collection);  the  fine 
reproductions  in  Ottley's  Italian  School  of  Design;  the 
idiotographsand  comments  in  IJlack's  Michael  Angelo, 
and  the  article  by  Muntz  in  L'Art  188S*-I-1  L  An  almost 
complete  list  of"  drawings  is  given  in  Braun's  Cata- 
logue general  des  Photographies. 

TnK  Ckilino  of  thk  Sistink  Ciiatkl.— The  best 
outline  map  of  the  ceiling  is  Plate  :i.  in  Duppa's  Life, 
(Lond.:  I8()7).  Smaller  representations  will  he  found 
in  Lvlbke's  Hist,  of  Art,  and  Woltmannn  and  Woer- 
manns  Hist,  of  Painting.  A  general  view  of  the 
chapel  follows  p.  '.»2  of  Clement's  Michael  .\ngelo. 
forms  the  frontispiece  to  Viardot's  lllustr.  TTist.  of 
Painters,  and  p.  1U5  of  ^[anniTlg■s  Italian  Pictures. 
De.scriptionsof  the  ceiling  are  singularly  fragmentary. 
The  most  comprehensive  is  that  of  Orimm.  \'ol.  1.  p. 
.32'.t-.3tW.  Others  will  i)e  found  in  Dupi)a's  life;  Perkins' 
Kapliael  and  Michael  .Vngelo;  Lilbke's  Hist,  of  Art. 
Vol.  2,  p.  ;^0I-30H:  Woltmann  and  Woermanns  Hist,  of 
Painting,  Vol.  2.  p.  41)(>-4'.«;:  Michelet's  Uenai.ssance. 
p.  401-2  fhighlv  imaginative);  .Symonds'  Henais.sance. 
the  Fine  Arts",  p.  407-412;  Fastlake's  Handbook  of 
Painting,  A'ol.  2.  p.  H7i"^-:mi,  :}H7-:is'».  Taine's  vivid 
transcript  of  his  emotions  in  the  presence  of  the 
frescoes  may  be  read  in  his  Italy,  Naples,  and  Pome. 

—17— 


Bk.  Ill,  Chap.  9.  The  references  in  Mrs.  Jameson's, 
works  may  be  traced  in  the  indexes  under  'Sistine.'  On 
the  Sibyls  and  Prophets,  see  History  of  Our  Lord,  Yol. 
1,  p.  248-256.  Quotations  from  Kugler,  Mrs.  Jameson, 
and  others  are  given  m  Hare's  Walks  in  Eome.  p.  549* 
For  a  singular  interpretation  of  the  Creation  of  Man, 
see  Wallis's  article  in  Art  Jl.  1882.  ("  Adam  receives 
the  breath  of  life  from  his  maker  with  an  attitude  of 
sullen  indifference.")  Yasari's  long  description  is 
rather  fulsome.  For  Michael  Angelo's  methods  of 
painting  in  fresco,  see  W.  B.  Scott's  Half-hour  Lec- 
tures, Lect.  14. 

TiiK  Last  Judgment.— The  best  detailed  inter- 
pretation is  that  by  Dr.  Harris  in  ,J1.  Spec.  Philos.  3:73. 
The  description  in  Grimm's  Life  covers  pp.  206-222,  in 
which  see  his  suggestive  comparison  of  the  L.  J.  and 
the  Pieta.  Lady  Eastlake's  chapter  in  Mrs.  Jameson's 
Hist,  of  Our  Lord,  Yol.  2,  p.  392-416,  on  the  L.  J.  in 
art.  should  be  read  with  care,  though  little  is  said  of 
Michael  Angelo.  Wilson's  comments  in  his  Michael 
Angelo,  p.  419-435,  are  stimulating  in  their  frankness, 
(lie  compares  the  face  of  Christ  to  that  of  Apollo, 
finds  the  features  "  without  expression,"  the  whole 
conception  "  a  misrepresentation."  The  face  of  the 
Yirgin  is  "  without  sentiment  of  any  kind.")  A  briefer 
description  is  given  in  Black's  Michael  Angelo,  accom- 
panied by  a  photograph  of  Yenusti's  copy  (compare 
Foster's  Etchings  of  Oxford  drawings).  Further  refer- 
ences are:  Taine's  Italy.  Xaples,  and  Rome,  Bk.  Ill, 
Chap.  9  (end);  Duppa's  Life  (contains  large  outline 
engraving):  Haydon's  Correspondence  and  Table  Talk, 
Yol.  2.  p.  152;  and  Delacroix's  Le  Jugement  dernier  in 
Revue  d.  deux  Mondes.  11  Aout,  1837  (also  reprinted). 
The  general  histories  of  art  should  of  course  be  con- 
sulted. 

POPULAR  WORKS 

Leonaedo  and  Michael  Angelo.— Cassels'  Lects. 
on  Great  Masters,  Lect.  1;  Spooner's  Biogr.  Hist,  of 
the  Fine  Arts:  Stories  of  the  Italian  Artists  (bv  the 
author  of  Belt  and  Spur),  p.  130-149,  2.58-301;  ]\Irs. 
Bolton's  Famous  European  Artists,  p.  66-105.  7-66; 
The  (xallery  of  Portraits,  Yols.  1  and  4;  Historical 
Sketches  of  Old  Painters;  Knox's  Great  Artists,  p. 
133-170.  171-186;  Spooner's  Anecdotes  of  Painters, 
Yol.  1 :  Kunsthistorische  Bilderbogen.il  Theil.  plates 
207-208  (same  plates  in  Prang's  History  of  Art  Series). 

Michael  Angelo.— Buckley's  Dawnings  of  (ienius, 
p.  48-66;  Foa'sBoy  Artists;  Lester's  Artists,  Merchants 
and  Statesmen,  p.  26-73;   Lord's  Beacon   Lights  of 

— 18— 


History,  Vol.  3;  Uoscoe's  Lives  of  Eminent  Persons; 
Kussel's  Extraordinary  Men;  Princes  of  Art. 

PHOTOGRAPHS 

Trustworthy  photoprajilis  can  be  best  obtained  by 
imi)()rting  tlieni.  'I'lii-  prints  inadf  in  tliis  country  are 
sometimes  mere  caricatures  of  tlie  originals,  some- 
times rei)roductions  of  etchings  or  engravings  which 
the  dealers  take  no  pains  to  identify.    Standard  Euro- 

fean  lirms  are  the  Kratelli  Alinari,  Via  Nazionale, 
'lorcnce;  I).  Anderson,  85  Piazza  di  Spagna,  liome; 
C.  Naya.  Place  S.  Marc  n.  75.  A'enice;  Sommer  A:  Figiio, 
Naples  (for  views  and  statuary  mainly);  Neunlein 
Fr6res.  52  Avenue  de  Hreteuil,  Paris;  Alansell  iS:  Vo., 
271  Oxford  street,  London,  \V.;  the  Autotype  Co.,  74 
New  Oxford  street,  London.  W.  ('.;  the  Berlin  JMioto- 
grai)li  Co.,  Berlin.  The  Carbon  P]iotograi)lis  of  Ad, 
Braun  I'v:  (.'ie..  43  Avenue  de  1'  Oi)t'ra,  Paris,  are  tine, 
but  expensive.  Catalogues  should  be  obtained,  and 
studied,  before  ordering,  and  the  size  and  price  care- 
fully determined,  iiraun's  Catalogue  general  of  42,(K30 
subjects,  may  be  had  for  five  francs.  It  is  worth  the 
price  merely  as  a  list  of  artists  and  works.  Photos 
should  always  be  ordered  sent  by  mail  unmounted. 
Any  local  i)hotographer  can  mount  them.  Oood 
effects  may  be  obtained  by  mounting  on  a  liglit  buff 
card,  with  a  margin  of  from  two  to  four  inches  on  each 
side. 


—19- 


ANN  ARBOE,  MICHIGAN: 

THE  EEGISTKR  PCBLISHI>G  COMPANY. 

"Cbc  ■flnlan^  press. 

1892. 


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